Cortex

Traditional views assume that pragmatic deficits after stroke, which compromise the interpretation of communicative intentions and non-literal meanings, follow damage to the right hemisphere (RHD), with left-hemisphere damage (LHD) primarily linked to aphasia and structural language impairment. To examine hemispheric contributions to post-stroke pragmatic profiles, we assessed 99 stroke patients (40 LHD, including 14 with aphasia of minimal-to-moderate severity; 59 RHD) and 60 healthy controls with the Assessment of Pragmatic Abilities and Cognitive Substrates (APACS). While stroke patients overall performed worse than controls, LHD and RHD profiles were largely comparable across three converging analyses: (1) permutation tests revealed no hemispheric differences except on the two tasks requiring expressive components (Interview and Figurative Language 2), which in turn lowered the composites (APACS Production and Total); (2) equivalence testing established equivalence for most measures, with only these same tasks and composites remaining inconclusive; and (3) unsupervised clustering did not group patients by lesion side. Theory of Mind was robustly associated with pragmatic performance in both groups, whereas structural language abilities related specifically to LHD performance and general cognition only to RHD. Excluding aphasic LHD patients strengthened the evidence for comparable profiles, indicating that aphasic LHD patients largely drove the residual differences. In conclusion, primary pragmatic impairment, especially in the receptive domain, emerged comparably after LHD and RHD, with the only residual LHD disadvantage limited to tasks demanding open verbal output. These findings challenge the assumption of right-hemispheric specialization for pragmatics, stressing the need for pragmatic assessment in all post-stroke patients.

Background: Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is increasingly used as an adjunct to rehabilitation for young people with cerebral palsy (CP), yet considerable variability exists in clinical response. Individualised electric field modelling provides an opportunity to estimate the distribution of electrical fields generated by the stimulation delivered to the brain and explore potential relationships with functional outcomes. Methods: Structural MRI scans from nineteen participants (10-16 years) from a previously published randomised controlled trial (ISRCTN74235136) investigating the effects of tDCS combined with motor training, underwent participant-specific finite element modelling using SimNIBS. Electric field strength was quantified within anatomically defined motor regions of interest, including the primary motor cortex (M1), dorsal premotor cortex (PMd), supplementary motor area (SMA), and a combined motor network. Global grey matter electric field metrics and stimulation focality were also extracted. Results: Estimated electric field strength differed significantly across motor regions (p<0.001), with PMd receiving significantly greater stimulation than both M1 and SMA. Electric field strength within a control region (primary visual cortex) was significantly lower than within M1 (p<0.001). Despite inter-individual variability in regional and global electric field metrics, no significant associations were observed between estimated electric field strength or focality and changes in function following intervention. Conclusion: Individualised electric field modelling demonstrated that an M1-targeted tDCS montage preferentially stimulated PMd rather than M1 in young people with CP. These findings highlight the importance of subject-specific modelling when characterising current distribution and suggest that variability in electric field strength alone does not explain variability in behavioural response.

Empirical evidence from traditional inhibitory control tasks regarding inhibitory deficits in high autistic traits has been mixed, indicating that this issue remains controversial. Although sex differences are widely documented in autistic cognitive profiles, their role in inhibitory gating mechanisms remains underexplored. Given that the expression of inhibitory gating deficits may be modulated by the social versus non-social nature of stimuli, and no prior study has investigated this topic by integrating both sex differences and stimulus domain, we addressed these two questions with the attribute amnesia paradigm. We manipulated stimulus type (non-social vs. social). In Experiment 1, participants performed a location task with animal drawings as targets and were unexpectedly asked to report animal identity on a surprise trial. High autistic trait females showed significantly higher accuracy on the surprise trial than all other groups, reflecting a failure to actively filter out task-irrelevant non-social information, that is, a reduced inhibitory gating efficiency. In Experiment 2, using face stimuli and a self-vs. other-face design, this gating deficit was no longer expressed: all groups performed at chance levels on the identity judgment, regardless of autistic trait level, sex, or face type. This dissociation aligns with a dual-mechanism framework: the inhibitory gating deficit in high autistic trait females is specific to non-social stimuli and masked by camouflaging for social ones. This study demonstrates that the inhibitory gating deficit in high autistic trait females is not a global impairment but rather a stimulus-dependent one, highlighting the need to consider sex and stimulus type.

The vestibular system has been implicated in several aspects of self-representation, including bodily self-location, yet its role in episodic source and reality monitoring remains unclear. Moreover, symptoms of depersonalisation and derealisation (DPDR) have been associated with both vestibular dysfunction and altered source and reality monitoring. We tested whether noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation (nGVS) modulates source and reality monitoring during a word-encoding paradigm and whether this increased symptoms of DPDR. Sixty young adults (N = 30 active nGVS, N = 30 sham) encoded words that varied by context (spoken vs. imagined), agentic source (self vs. other), and valence (positive vs. threat) before completing source/reality judgments. Active nGVS reduced overall accuracy relative to sham on both reality and source monitoring. Across conditions, self-referential items were remembered with greater sensitivity compared to other-referential items, and spoken items were recalled with greater sensitivity than imagined items. We additionally show an interaction effect whereby active nGVS reduced accuracy specifically for imagined and threat-valenced items. Trait DPDR did not moderate the effects of stimulation, although higher trait DPDR was associated with a more liberal reality-monitoring response criterion. Results indicate that transient vestibular perturbation via nGVS can impair source monitoring for internalised and threatening stimuli and impairs cognitive distinctions between internally and externally generated events in general, supporting a role for vestibular input in maintaining self-other and reality boundaries in episodic memory.

The coordination of sensory processing and working memory (WM) is fundamental to cognition. Spatial organization of sensory processing and WM is known to be broadly distributed across the cortex, but finer-scale organization at the interfaces between these functions remains understudied. Although the notion of sharp parcellations of cortex into distinct functional modules dominates the field, a growing body of works support graded changes in function and anatomy in some cortical zones. Based on this and potential advantages of gradient organizational structure in frontal cortex, we hypothesized that sensory-WM interfaces in the frontal cortex are gradient-like, not boundary-like. We examined twenty bilateral cortical regions that participate in visual/auditory WM tasks. In five frontal cortical regions, group-level WM activation overlapped with sensory drive, but was spatially shifted. We compared subject-level (N=20) boundary and gradient models of change in function. Strong individual-level evidence for sensory-WM gradients was observed in pre-supplementary motor area, ventral premotor cortex, and anterior insula in both modalities and in dorsal premotor cortex for visual WM. Conversely, dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex yielded mixed results, favored distinct WM and sensory regions in the left hemisphere, and gave some evidence for gradients in the right hemisphere. These results provide evidence that sensory and WM regions in frontal cortex are largely not distinct with sharp boundaries at their interfaces but instead bleed into each other to form local rostral-caudal sensory-WM gradients. We speculate these gradients may allow efficient interfacing between sensory and WM representations, and/or fine-grained, task-dependent shifting between bottom-up sensory and top-down influences.

BackgroundThe Trail Making Test (TMT) is a widely used instrument for assessing executive functions due to its sensitivity. But, its traditional scoring, based solely on total completion time, limits its specificity by losing the rich behaviour required to complete the task, involving integrating visual search, motor planning and task switching. A computerised implementation of the TMT (cTMT) allows high-resolution cursor trajectories to be recorded, offering access to fine-grained features of the trajectory, while an online administration improves accessibility and statistical power. ObjectiveThis study aimed to extract high-resolution cursor trajectory features from an online cTMT and evaluate their capacity to predict individual differences in core executive functions, such as visual working memory (VWM), inhibitory control and age, using machine learning, as well as validating the feasibility of a fully online data acquisition pipeline as a basis for digital biomarkers. MethodsParticipants completed an online battery comprising the cTMT and three validation tasks: the Change Detection Task (CDT), the Stop-Signal Task (SST) and the Go/No-Go task (GNG). A total of 104 features (26 features x Part A/B x whole-trial/first-10-targets) were extracted from cursor trajectories, including trajectory profiles and segmentation into latent states: Search, Travel and Hesitation. Regression models were trained within a nested Leave-One-Out cross-validation framework with inner 10-fold hyperparameter tuning, feature selection and standardisation applied strictly within folds. Performance was assessed via mean absolute error (MAE), normalised error (MAE/SD) and permutation testing; SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) were used to characterise feature importance. ResultscTMT features strongly predicted age across all models (p < .001), with MAEs roughly one-third lower than the targets dispersion, driven predominantly by distance-based "circuitousness" metrics from both parts. GNG accuracy and c-coefficient were both significantly predicted, but with a dissociated pattern: accuracy was best explained by Part B (alternation) metrics, whereas the c-coefficient was almost exclusively predicted by Part A (simple sequencing) metrics. SST response time (SSRT) was not significantly predicted by any model. VWM, characterised by the mean Cowan s K, was significantly predicted mainly by the more complex models, and involving state transitions and search phases in both Part A and B. ConclusionsMoving beyond completion time, cursor trajectory dynamics from an online cTMT provide a rich behavioural signal for predicting age, VWM capacity and distinct aspects of inhibitory control. The dissociation between Part A and Part B predictors supports differentiated cognitive processes within the TMT and positions the cTMT as a scalable, portable digital biomarker with promise for computational psychiatry and personalised neuropsychology.

Source and reality monitoring enable individuals to distinguish the origins of remembered information, including whether information was self- or other-generated and whether it was perceived or imagined. Although the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and temporoparietal junction (TPJ) have been implicated in these processes, their independent causal contributions remain unclear. We investigated whether focal transcranial direct current stimulation (f-tDCS) of the left dlPFC and left TPJ differentially modulates source and reality monitoring. One hundred participants were randomly assigned to receive anodal or sham stimulation of the left dlPFC or TPJ before completing an episodic memory task manipulating agent (self, experimenter), context (spoken, imagined), and emotional valence (positive, negative). Discrimination sensitivity (d') and response criterion (c) were examined separately. For source monitoring, stimulation interacted with context and cortical region: anodal dlPFC stimulation was associated with a greater spoken-imagined difference in self-experimenter discrimination than sham stimulation, whereas no equivalent context-dependent effect emerged following TPJ stimulation. For reality monitoring, stimulation effects also differed by cortical target, with reduced spoken-imagined discrimination following anodal relative to sham TPJ stimulation and no significant effect of dlPFC stimulation. These effects were not accompanied by corresponding stimulation effects on response criterion. Independent of stimulation, source discrimination was substantially greater for spoken than imagined information, while reality-monitoring sensitivity was enhanced for self-generated relative to experimenter-generated negative information. Together, these findings provide evidence that the dlPFC and TPJ make dissociable contributions to source and reality monitoring, while highlighting the importance of contextual and affective features in determining how the origins of memories are evaluated.

Recent work has revealed two food-selective areas in the lateral and ventromedial occipitotemporal cortex (OTC). These studies have shown that food selectivity in these regions cannot be explained by mid-level features like shape, texture, or colour but differences in their representational content remain unclear. Across two fMRI experiments conducted in the same group of participants, we characterized the dimensions underlying food representations in lateral and ventral OTC by examining the contribution of action-related object properties, such as manipulability, relevant to object interaction, and visual features, such as colour and ensemble statistics, relevant to object recognition. Our results reveal a clear dissociation between lateral and ventral OTC, indicating that food representations in these regions reflect distinct computational constraints. In lateral OTC, food representations were primarily associated with action-related properties shared between food and other graspable objects, whereas in ventral OTC, food representations were sensitive to surface object properties, such as colour and ensemble configuration. Consistent with this distinction, lateral OTC showed greater sensitivity to individual objects against distinctive background and responded equally to colour and greyscale stimuli, while ventral OTC exhibited greater sensitivity to coloured stimuli and ensembles with no distinctive background. Finally, topographic artificial neural networks implementing architectural constraints meant to capture OTC spatial organization similarly exhibited two dissociable clusters of food-selective units based on sensitivity to ensemble statistics. Together, these findings suggest that lateral food representations reflect action-relevant properties shared with other manipulable objects, whereas ventral food representations arise from surface-based visual features critical for food identification.

Impairment in the comprehension of morphosyntactic and transitivity information does not feature in current diagnostic guidelines for primary progressive aphasia (PPA) or Alzheimer's Disease (AD), despite research reporting delayed sensitivity or insensitivity of these clinical populations to these linguistic domains. Moreover, studies rarely compare all three PPA variants and AD within a single design, and the literature is weighted toward English, whose reduced morphology may not capture the full range of comprehension difficulties these populations experience. We developed a computer-based acceptability judgment task covering comprehension of the nominal and verbal inflection paradigm in Spanish, transitivity and word order. We recruited Spanish-speaking patients diagnosed with non-fluent/agrammatic, logopenic and semantic variants of PPA and typical AD. Psychometric evaluation confirmed good sensitivity, internal consistency and moderate correlation of task accuracy with language and neuropsychological measures. The four clinical groups retained the ability to endorse grammatical sentences but showed selective difficulty rejecting unacceptable ones. AD and the three PPA variants showed impaired comprehension of inflectional and transitivity information, whereas sensitivity to word order was comparatively preserved. Exploratory analyses revealed that short-term memory, working memory, and verbal semantics were differentially associated with sentence evaluation performance within and across groups. VBM analyses identified the left posterior temporal cortex as the main neuroanatomical correlate of grammaticality judgment performance. These findings extend prior English-language research to Spanish, demonstrating that morphosyntactic and transitivity deficits are a robust and cross-linguistically consistent feature of neurodegenerative language decline, and highlighting the importance of developing language-sensitive assessment tools for underrepresented linguistic populations.

Typical brain network maturation involves an increase in network flexibility and hemispheric specialization. Tourette syndrome (TS) disrupts these trajectories, with tic severity potentially modulating deviations. This study examined theta-band EEG source connectivity states in typically developing children and children with TS. We assessed age-related trajectories and the impact of tic severity using generalized linear modeling, accounting for sex and multiple comparisons. K-means clustering identified four recurrent source connectivity states (A-D), with metrics including Coverage, representing state prevalence (proportion of time spent in each state), Average Dwell Time, an index of state stability (mean duration of stable persistence of each state), and Transition Rate Per Minute, reflecting global network flexibility (frequency of state switches per minute). In healthy controls (HC), typical maturation was characterized by increased left intra-hemisphere connectivity state stability and prevalence, decreased diffuse connectivity state stability, and rising network flexibility. TS patients exhibited deviant trajectories, including age-dependent decreasing global network flexibility across subgroups stratified by tic severity and marginally divergent diffuse activity patterns, with high-severity cases showing increased diffuse connectivity state stability. The normative patterns suggest typical motor development requiring dynamic network reconfiguration and hemispheric specialization, processes that appear altered in TS. TS patients exhibit age-dependent network rigidity across severity subgroups, as reflected by decreased transition rates, alongside severity- modulated network imbalances, indicating that tic disorders disrupt mechanisms of brain network maturation underlying motor control. These findings suggest that atypical trajectories of network stability and flexibility represent a key feature of tic pathophysiology, highlighting the role of altered network dynamics in TS during maturation.

Interactions with the environment follow stable spatial regularities that allow the brain to predict where sensory events are likely to occur. Although these expectations can adapt when actions repeatedly produce altered sensory consequences, whether spatial regularities learned through action influence subsequent sensory processing in the absence of action remains unclear. Participants underwent virtual reality (VR) sensorimotor remapping training in which right-hand interactions produced tactile feedback on either the ipsilateral (n=23) or contralateral foot (n=23). Feedback was either synchronous with hand object contact, establishing a reliable action sensation relationship, or asynchronous, providing comparable tactile exposure without a consistent temporal contingency. Before and after training, EEG was recorded during a visuo-tactile looming task in which participants passively observed objects approaching the hand while tactile stimulation was delivered to the hand (expected) or occasionally to the foot (unexpected). We examined the mismatch negativity (MMN) and P300 to determine whether the learned hand-to-foot regularity influenced subsequent processing of these events. P300 responses to hand stimulation increased selectively following synchronous training, indicating that learning a reliable hand-to-foot relationship altered subsequent processing of hand-related events outside the action context. In contrast, neither MMN nor P300 responses to foot stimulation differed between synchronous and asynchronous training, providing no evidence for direct transfer of the newly learned spatial mapping. Relative to baseline, foot-related responses instead showed contingency independent changes consistent with more general exposure related adaptation. Together, these findings show that spatial regularities learned through action can influence subsequent sensory processing beyond the context in which they are acquired, while highlighting constraints on their generalization across active and passive interactions.

Background and Objectives: Word-finding difficulty is common in healthy aging and in neurologic disorders, including temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and early Alzheimer disease. Standard language measures have limited sensitivity for detecting subtle or longitudinal changes in spontaneous speech. We examined whether natural language processing and acoustic analysis of spoken biographical recall could identify lexical and temporal speech features associated with language and memory performance in TLE. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional observational study of spoken recall during a Famous Faces biographical memory task. Adults with TLE and healthy controls (HCs) viewed 20 famous faces and spontaneously recalled biographical details. Speech was transcribed and diarized using automated tools. Lexical measures included word counts and lexical index (ratio of rare to common words). Acoustic measures included utterance and pause duration and pause frequency. Features were compared between groups and correlated with neuropsychological measures, including Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Boston Naming Test (BNT), delayed recall, education, and biographical recall accuracy Results: Eighty-one adults participated (51 TLE, 30 HCs). Lexical measures did not differ between groups. In TLE, lexical index correlated with BNT performance (rs=0.62) and MoCA score (rs=0.35). Compared with HCs, participants with TLE produced shorter utterances (5.54 {+/-} 2.50 vs. 6.59 {+/-} 2.63; Cohen's d=0.41, 95% CI -0.05 to 0.86, p=0.041), shorter pauses (0.61 {+/-} 0.21 vs 0.67 {+/-} 0.22, Cohen's d=0.29, 95% CI -0.16 to 0.74, p=0.043), and more frequent pauses (10.81 {+/-} 3.30 vs 9.29 {+/-} 3.59, Cohen's d=-0.45, 95% CI -0.90 to 0.01, p=0.036). Higher education was associated with longer utterances, longer pauses, and lower pause frequency, without evidence of a diagnosis-by-education interaction. Faster utterance rate was associated with better biographical recall in both groups, while higher pause rate was associated with worse recall in TLE. Discussion: Speech-derived lexical and temporal features from naturalistic recall capture clinically relevant variation in language and memory-related performance. Although lexical output did not distinguish TLE from HCs, lexical richness tracked naming and global cognition in TLE, while temporal speech features related to recall performance. These findings support the potential of automated speech analysis as a digital behavioral biomarker for word-finding difficulty in neurologic populations.

Individuals with schizophrenia show well-documented impairment in metaphor comprehension, often exhibiting a bias toward concrete, literal interpretations. While this tendency has traditionally been linked to psychopathological and cognitive factors, the contribution of perceptual processes remains underexplored. Here, we tested the hypothesis that figurative language impairment reflects altered perceptual processing, whereby the visual representations evoked by metaphors remain abnormally active and hinder abstraction. A sample of 143 individuals with schizophrenia and healthy controls was administered a novel paradigm where metaphors (e.g., Wisdom is a flashlight) served as primes for target words related to the metaphor vehicle based on visual (e.g., microphone), action (e.g., remote), or semantic features (e.g., lamp). While in healthy participants metaphors activated semantically associated words, individuals with schizophrenia showed sustained visual priming, emerging 1000 ms after metaphor presentation and persisting up to 1400 ms, with both groups showing reverse priming for action targets. Critically, greater visual priming predicted lower metaphor comprehension in patients, whereas greater semantic priming was correlated with better metaphor skills in controls. These results suggest that visual-perceptual representations are not only overactivated in patients compared to controls during metaphor processing but may also interfere with figurative comprehension. We argue that concretism arises from an imbalance between bottom-up sensory signals and top-down contextual priors, leading to the persistence of the visual representations and impaired abstraction. More broadly, these results support multimodal and predictive accounts of metaphor processing and point to altered perceptual dynamics as a previously unappreciated mechanism contributing to pragmatic impairment in schizophrenia.

Despite the importance of sustaining attention focus throughout a task, sustained attention research demonstrates a rapid decline of task-focus with time-on-task. Separate research body highlights perceptual load as critical determinant of focused attention, showing that increased perceptual load draws more neural energy into task-relevant processing (Bruckmaier et al., 2020) and improves attention focus (Lavie, 2005). However, the effect of perceptual load on the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying time-on-task impact on sustained attention remains unknown. This was the aim of the present study. Participants performed a gradual continuous-performance task, detecting infrequent mountain scenes, among streams of city scenes, under either high or low perceptual load (with or without overlaid salt-and-pepper noise, respectively). EEG was recorded and parameterised into periodic and aperiodic components; the aperiodic 1/f slope linked with excitation-inhibition (E/I) balance: steeper slopes reflecting reduced E/I ratio (Gao et al., 2017). Time-on-task resulted in a wide-spread increase in alpha power, and a steeper 1/f slope in a left temporal-parietal cluster, accompanied by reduced detection sensitivity and increased response variability, as well as increased mind wandering, with reduced thoughts detail. Perceptual load improved task focus, as indexed by reduced mind wandering, but exacerbated the effect of time-on-task on detection sensitivity, and the 1/f slope, which was steeper with time-on-task in a right parieto-occipital cluster with increased load. Overall, the findings suggest that sustained attention decline with time-on-task can be attributed to depletion of neural energy needed for excitatory signalling, which is further drained with increased processing demands in tasks of high perceptual load.

The present study examined the relationship between the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for gambling disorder (GD) and gambling severity via an item response theory (IRT) analysis in two large German population survey data sets (Buth et al. (2022, 2024)). IRT-based person fit analyses may reveal atypical response patterns (e.g. endorsing criteria linked to higher levels of disorder severity, but not criteria linked to lower levels). We examined the link of such atypical response patterns and mental health as measured by the MHI-5, employing a 2-parameter-logistic (2PL) IRT model and a linear mixed model with random intercepts. Results largely replicated previously reported item severity rankings across both samples: GD criteria such as loss chasing and a preoccupation with gambling were generally linked to lower severity levels, whereas criteria such as withdrawal symptoms or job/family problems where generally linked to higher severity levels. Modelling revealed a reduced assessment sensitivity in lower gambling severity ranges. Furthermore, person fit analyses suggest that atypical symptom patterns may be linked to poorer mental health (MHI-5). Implications for the interpretability of total scores of endorsed criteria and the validity of diagnostic practices determining eligibility for treatment and financial compensation are discussed.

Immersive virtual reality (VR) can preserve the logic of laboratory attention tasks while altering the perceptual-action context in which attentional control is expressed. In this study, we examined the neural underpinnings of location-response compatibility in a VR adaptation of the Attention Network Test-Revised (ANT-VR), using a restricted preprocessing multiverse to account for uncertainty arising from defensible EEG analysis choices. Forty-four young adults contributed complete ANT-VR behavioural data. Target-locked EEG analyses were conducted across 192 preprocessing branches, with branch-level participant contributions varying after quality check and trial-count filtering. The contrast compared location-response incompatible with compatible trials and was balanced within participants across cue-target interval, cue condition, flanker congruency, and, for spatial-cue trials, conditions in which spatial cues were valid or invalid for subsequent targets. Across the multiverse, the N2pc-window posterior-lateralisation contrast could be defined in all branches and showed high directional stability: the median incompatible-minus-compatible effect was 0.30 uV [IQR: 0.22 to 0.41], with positive effects in 192/192 branches, nominal evidence in 79/192 branches, and Holm-corrected evidence in 42/192 branches. Comparison across ERP measures indicated that this pattern was more consistent for N2pc-window posterior lateralisation than for P1, posterior N1, frontocentral N2, P3, or response-referenced C3/C4 measures. Comparison across C3/C4 reference frames further constrained the interpretation: target-location-referenced C3/C4 showed the strongest effect, whereas response-referenced C3/C4 was weaker. Behavioural analyses showed no reliable compatibility differences. These findings suggest that location-response compatibility in immersive ANT-VR modulates target-locked lateralised neural activity associated with spatial selection and target-location coding, rather than producing broad sensory, conflict-related, P3-related, or specifically response-referenced modulation.

The Sense of Agency (SoA), the experience of being in control of ones own actions, is thought to emerge from the comparison of internal sensorimotor predictions with afferent feedback. Classical comparator models treat SoA as arising from a prediction-feedback comparison. Volitional action likely engages multiple forward models that predict distinct features of an outcome, such as its timing and spatial trajectory. Whether prediction errors arising from these distinct forward models are integrated into a domain-general representation of agency, and if so by what computational logic, remains unresolved. We addressed this question using a Virtual Reality reaching task. Participants observed a virtual hand replicating their movements while we independently manipulated two sensorimotor domains: temporal delay and spatial angle deviation, in isolation and in factorial combinations. After each trial, participants made an SoA judgment. We examined whether SoA responses show computational hallmarks of integration between different features of sensorimotor prediction. Specifically, we pre-registered three computational models (Multiplicative, Minimum, and Mean) and compared their fit to per-trial responses. Across an exploratory sample (N = 16) and a pre-registered replication (N = 38), SoA declined monotonically with conflict magnitude in both domains. Critically, a Multiplicative integration rule consistently outperformed the Minimum and Mean rules. These results provide direct evidence for domain-general integration between prediction errors in SoA, governed by a multiplicative computational logic.

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) progressively deprives the retina of input, but whether the responsiveness of the visual cortex declines in parallel, remains preserved, or increases through compensatory gain remains unclear. Indeed, a weaker visually evoked response cannot, on its own, distinguish these possibilities, since it is equally compatible with a passively degraded input and with an actively recalibrated cortex. We combined spatially resolved steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs), which index stimulus-driven activity, with transcranial magnetic stimulation combined with electroencephalography (TMS-EEG), which probes cortical reactivity independently of vision, in patients with RP and in healthy controls. Nine patients (PTs) with RP (five women, age range 28 to 69 years) and nineteen sex-, age-, and handedness-matched healthy controls (thirteen women, mean age 42.6 years) were tested. They underwent SSVEP recordings to stimuli presented at three eccentricities (central, intermediate, peripheral) and single-pulse TMS-EEG over the left and right occipital cortex and, as a non-visual control site, the dominant motor cortex. We quantified SSVEP amplitude and phase at 12 Hz, early TMS-evoked potentials, oscillatory power, inter-trial phase synchrony, and functional connectivity and graph-theoretical network measures derived from the weighted phase lag index. SSVEP amplitude followed the expected central-to-peripheral gradient: PTs were comparable to healthy controls at the center, reduced but still above their own resting baseline at intermediate eccentricity, and no longer distinguishable from baseline in the periphery; phase differed from controls in a quarter of the central and half of the intermediate sectors. Occipital stimulation elicited a larger early negative deflection after left-hemisphere stimulation in PTs compared to controls, a stronger beta-band event-related spectral perturbation after stimulation of either hemisphere, and stronger, more efficiently distributed post-stimulus connectivity, despite comparable pre-stimulus connectivity, resting motor threshold, and most early evoked components. The pattern was site- and hemisphere-specific: left occipital stimulation produced widespread, mainly contralateral effects; right occipital stimulation a more circumscribed ipsilateral one, and motor cortex stimulation showed altered alpha-band activity without the bilateral occipital beta effect. Together, these results show that progressive retinal deafferentation in RP does not produce a parallel decline in cortical responsiveness. Visually driven activity weakens with eccentricity, while direct cortical perturbation reveals preserved and, at selected sites, enhanced reactivity. This dissociation is consistent with a homeostatic increase in cortical gain rather than a uniform loss of cortical function, and indicates that the deafferented cortex retains, and in places strengthens, its capacity to respond as retinal input deteriorates.

Intelligence or general cognitive ability (GCA) is fundamental to human behavior and cognition. It impacts important life outcomes like educational success and even health and longevity have been related to differences in GCA. Understanding the biological basis of such individual variations presents a crucial goal of neuroscience. The mismatch negativity (MMN) is an event-related brain potential that can be measured when--within a series of frequent standard stimuli, rare deviants are presented--and is suggested to reflect conscious (active) or unconscious (passive) detection processes of the brain. Importantly, variations in MMN amplitude and latency have been linked to differences in GCA. Yet findings vary considerably. This preregistered meta-analysis provides a comprehensive and structured overview of the current state of research. Following the study selection process in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, and the rating of study design quality with the Study Design and Implementation Assessment Device for Individual Difference Research (DIAD-ID), the association between GCA and MMN amplitude and latency was examined in 695 healthy adults across 13 included studies. The estimated across-sample associations between MMN and GCA were small, but significant (MMN amplitude-GCA: r = -0.08, MMN latency-GCA: r = -0.13; p < 0.05) and moderators were identified. Between-sample heterogeneity was moderate, with no evidence of publication bias. Our findings suggest that higher cognitive ability is associated with slightly stronger and faster MMN responses. However, the low estimated across-sample effect sizes and the small number of included studies also highlight the need for more research.

Can grammatical gender in a bilingual's first language shape gender-stereotype processing in a second language? Spanish (L1)-English (L2) bilinguals (n = 28) and English monolinguals (n = 28) completed an event-related potential (ERP) priming task in which English pronouns (SHE/HE) followed gender-stereotyped English nouns, half of which had gender-marked Spanish translation equivalents (e.g., NURSE 'enfermera/o', SURGEON 'cirujana/o'), and half unmarked translation equivalents (e.g., SINGER 'cantante', JANITOR 'conserje'). Both groups showed asymmetric stereotype priming: male pronouns elicited a larger N400 for incongruent than congruent primes, whereas female pronouns elicited a larger P300 for incongruent than congruent primes. Crucially, only bilinguals showed modulation by Spanish grammatical gender marking: the N400 effect for male pronouns was larger for primes with gender-marked than unmarked Spanish translations. These findings provide neural evidence that grammatical gender in a bilingual's first language can influence gender-stereotype processing in a second language, linking cross-linguistic activation to social cognition.