Cortex

Naming pictures from the same semantic category can interfere with subsequent word retrieval. Although the left inferior frontal gyrus (LIFG) has been implicated in resolving this semantic interference, its causal role in this process remains unclear. Across three experiments, we investigated the contribution of the LIFG to interference resolution during blocked-cyclic naming. Experiment 1 tested whether continuous theta-burst stimulation over the LIFG increased semantic interference relative to vertex stimulation. Although the overall interference effect did not differ significantly between stimulation sites, exploratory analyses revealed an unexpected pattern based on the initial context (related vs. unrelated) with which items were named, suggesting that LIFG disruption affected retrieval of previously related items even when they were subsequently named in unrelated contexts. This observation motivated two further experiments examining the consequences of prior naming context more directly. Experiment 2 established that, without stimulation, interference observed in related blocks was no longer evident after the items were redistributed into unrelated blocks. Experiment 3 combined this design with cathodal or sham transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the LIFG. Planned comparisons showed that cathodal stimulation slowed naming of initially related items both within related blocks and after redistribution into unrelated blocks; corresponding comparisons for items named consistently in unrelated blocks were not significant. The similar patterns across two stimulation methods suggest that LIFG-mediated control may influence both selection under current competition and subsequent retrieval of previously competing words. These findings could be accommodated within a hybrid account in which working memory supports context-guided selection and selection-related control helps recalibrate lexical accessibility, limiting the carryover of interference into subsequent naming.

Traditional views assume that pragmatic deficits after stroke, which compromise the interpretation of communicative intentions and non-literal meanings, follow damage to the right hemisphere (RHD), with left-hemisphere damage (LHD) primarily linked to aphasia and structural language impairment. To examine hemispheric contributions to post-stroke pragmatic profiles, we assessed 99 stroke patients (40 LHD, including 14 with aphasia of minimal-to-moderate severity; 59 RHD) and 60 healthy controls with the Assessment of Pragmatic Abilities and Cognitive Substrates (APACS). While stroke patients overall performed worse than controls, LHD and RHD profiles were largely comparable across three converging analyses: (1) permutation tests revealed no hemispheric differences except on the two tasks requiring expressive components (Interview and Figurative Language 2), which in turn lowered the composites (APACS Production and Total); (2) equivalence testing established equivalence for most measures, with only these same tasks and composites remaining inconclusive; and (3) unsupervised clustering did not group patients by lesion side. Theory of Mind was robustly associated with pragmatic performance in both groups, whereas structural language abilities related specifically to LHD performance and general cognition only to RHD. Excluding aphasic LHD patients strengthened the evidence for comparable profiles, indicating that aphasic LHD patients largely drove the residual differences. In conclusion, primary pragmatic impairment, especially in the receptive domain, emerged comparably after LHD and RHD, with the only residual LHD disadvantage limited to tasks demanding open verbal output. These findings challenge the assumption of right-hemispheric specialization for pragmatics, stressing the need for pragmatic assessment in all post-stroke patients.

Task demand has a long-standing history in experimental psychology, with numerous investigations of the capacity of different systems and processes under varying cognitive load. Whilst demand is a broadly used term in the literature, it is limited by a lack of cross-domain operationalisation, and thus can be a confound in many inter-domain investigations. To address this, we generated and validated two large-scale, open-source, widely applicable stimuli sets that: (i) can probe a wide, continuous range of objective behaviourally-measured processing demand, and (ii) can be directly matched across two highly contrastive cognitive domains (semantic and visuospatial processing). We normed these tasks in a large, online cohort of healthy adults, enabling future studies to utilise and benefit from reliable baseline measures of demand. Using a matching algorithm that takes into account both speed and accuracy, we then closely paired each semantic judgement trial with a trial of comparable difficulty from the corresponding visuospatial task to produce a cross domain matched set of over 400 items. Finally, we analysed the psycholinguistic and perceptual properties of these stimuli to explore some of the underlying factors driving demand.

To make adaptive perceptual judgments, the nervous system must selectively process behaviorally relevant sensory information while filtering out competing distractions. Although attentional control has been extensively studied in the visual domain, particularly in the context of spatial selection, considerably less is known about how attention operates in the tactile modality and across time rather than space. Here, we developed a paradigm to investigate temporal tactile attention in human participants, enabling the study of attentional behavior and underlying behavioral strategies in this sensory domain. Participants were instructed to categorize the intensity of a task-relevant tactile stimulus delivered to the fingertip while ignoring an irrelevant tactile stimulus. A visual cue indicated which of two sequentially presented stimuli was relevant on each trial. In addition, participants completed self-report questionnaires assessing autistic traits and aberrant salience (the tendency to assign significance to otherwise neutral stimuli or events). Across subjects, participants performed the task with high accuracy. However, clustering analyses based on behavioral features revealed distinct response profiles. One cluster did not exhibit biases induced by the irrelevant stimulus. In contrast, a third cluster displayed a repulsive effect of the irrelevant stimulus and showed lower overall performance. These behavioral phenotypes were also reflected, to some extent, in differences in learning trajectories across training sessions. We further explored participants' metacognitive awareness through a post-experiment questionnaire assessing subjective evaluations of task difficulty and performance. Although exploratory, the results suggest a relationship between metacognitive reports, behavioral strategies, and objective task performance. In contrast, neither autistic traits nor aberrant salience scores were associated with performance measures or behavioral phenotypes. Together, these findings support the view that attentional control is implemented through multiple, individualistic behavioral strategies rather than a single mechanism pertaining to all, suggesting that task structure interacts with individual predispositions to shape distinct modes of attentional control in human participants.

Background: Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is increasingly used as an adjunct to rehabilitation for young people with cerebral palsy (CP), yet considerable variability exists in clinical response. Individualised electric field modelling provides an opportunity to estimate the distribution of electrical fields generated by the stimulation delivered to the brain and explore potential relationships with functional outcomes. Methods: Structural MRI scans from nineteen participants (10-16 years) from a previously published randomised controlled trial (ISRCTN74235136) investigating the effects of tDCS combined with motor training, underwent participant-specific finite element modelling using SimNIBS. Electric field strength was quantified within anatomically defined motor regions of interest, including the primary motor cortex (M1), dorsal premotor cortex (PMd), supplementary motor area (SMA), and a combined motor network. Global grey matter electric field metrics and stimulation focality were also extracted. Results: Estimated electric field strength differed significantly across motor regions (p<0.001), with PMd receiving significantly greater stimulation than both M1 and SMA. Electric field strength within a control region (primary visual cortex) was significantly lower than within M1 (p<0.001). Despite inter-individual variability in regional and global electric field metrics, no significant associations were observed between estimated electric field strength or focality and changes in function following intervention. Conclusion: Individualised electric field modelling demonstrated that an M1-targeted tDCS montage preferentially stimulated PMd rather than M1 in young people with CP. These findings highlight the importance of subject-specific modelling when characterising current distribution and suggest that variability in electric field strength alone does not explain variability in behavioural response.

Empirical evidence from traditional inhibitory control tasks regarding inhibitory deficits in high autistic traits has been mixed, indicating that this issue remains controversial. Although sex differences are widely documented in autistic cognitive profiles, their role in inhibitory gating mechanisms remains underexplored. Given that the expression of inhibitory gating deficits may be modulated by the social versus non-social nature of stimuli, and no prior study has investigated this topic by integrating both sex differences and stimulus domain, we addressed these two questions with the attribute amnesia paradigm. We manipulated stimulus type (non-social vs. social). In Experiment 1, participants performed a location task with animal drawings as targets and were unexpectedly asked to report animal identity on a surprise trial. High autistic trait females showed significantly higher accuracy on the surprise trial than all other groups, reflecting a failure to actively filter out task-irrelevant non-social information, that is, a reduced inhibitory gating efficiency. In Experiment 2, using face stimuli and a self-vs. other-face design, this gating deficit was no longer expressed: all groups performed at chance levels on the identity judgment, regardless of autistic trait level, sex, or face type. This dissociation aligns with a dual-mechanism framework: the inhibitory gating deficit in high autistic trait females is specific to non-social stimuli and masked by camouflaging for social ones. This study demonstrates that the inhibitory gating deficit in high autistic trait females is not a global impairment but rather a stimulus-dependent one, highlighting the need to consider sex and stimulus type.

The Visual Word Form Area (VWFA), located in ventral occipitotemporal cortex, plays a critical role in skilled reading. Researchers have theorized that the VWFA develops in its specific anatomical location due to the convergence of major white matter tracts and proximity to functionally similar regions. This suggests that precise anatomical positioning may be crucial for optimal VWFA function. Previous research has identified several functional differences in this region between typical and struggling readers (i.e. dyslexia): struggling readers show weaker text-selective responses and often exhibit a smaller or even absent VWFA. However, it remains unexplored whether the precise anatomical location of this region also differs between typical and struggling readers. We tested whether VWFA anatomy differs between children with and without dyslexia (N=87). Participants completed a functional localizer, which we used to manually define the VWFA in each individuals native anatomy. We examined whether: (1) VWFA anatomical location relates to reading ability, (2) children with dyslexia show greater variability in VWFA location compared to typical readers, and (3) VWFA location with respect to white matter tracts relates to reading ability. Results reveal that, despite being smaller in children with dyslexia, there is no relationship between VWFA location and reading ability. Specifically, individual VWFA location relative to anatomy, relative to others VWFAs, and relative to white matter tracts, is not related to reading ability. These findings suggest that while the VWFAs general anatomy may be facilitated by development, its precise location remains stable and unrelated to reading proficiency.

Previous patient and imaging studies suggest that dorsal and ventral visual stream mechanisms contribute selectively to egocentric (eye-centred) and allocentric (landmark-centred) goal-directed behaviours, respectively. However, causal evidence for this ego-allocentric dissociation in healthy brains is lacking. Based on a recent neuroimaging study, we hypothesized that perturbations to dorsal stream network hubs would disrupt both egocentric and allocentric reaches, whereas perturbations to ventral hubs would affect only allocentric reaches. Sixteen participants viewed a briefly presented target in the presence of a landmark that later shifted after a memory interval. Participants were instructed to 1) ignore the landmark and reach toward / opposite the original target location (egocentric task) or 2) reach toward the targets location fixed relative to the shifted landmark (allocentric task). Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was applied during the memory period, spanning the landmark shift, at two occipital sites, based on the network hub coordinates from our previous study and individual brain anatomy. As predicted, superior occipital TMS impaired reaction time, accuracy, and precision in both tasks, whereas inferior occipital TMS only impaired allocentric performance. Further, spatial asymmetries in the resulting error patterns were influenced by TMS site and task: superior occipital TMS influenced asymmetries more strongly in the egocentric task, whereas inferior occipital TMS only influenced spatial asymmetries in the allocentric task. Finally, a functional network analysis revealed a widespread influence of TMS on network-behavior relations and another dissociation: greater influence of superior occipital TMS on the egocentric task and of inferior occipital TMS on the allocentric task. These results establish specific causal relationships between occipital hubs, widespread cortical networks, and reach behavior, confirming a default dorsal egocentric transformation for visually aimed reaches, and a role for the ventral stream for landmark-centred actions.

Searching for objects of interest is an essential and pervasive activity in adaptive cognition. In everyday situations, we often search for relevant content in our surroundings and in mind at the same time, yet most experimental tasks consider search behavior in perception or in working memory separately. To address the gap, we designed tasks to investigate perceptual and working-memory search proceeding in tandem. Participants viewed successive arrays of two real-world objects, separated by a delay, and then were prompted to search for a specific object, while the second array remained visible. The probed target was equally likely to be in the previously encoded array, available only in working memory, or in the visible array. Behavioral performance across four experiments with different response demands and delays yielded a consistent pattern of findings. Accuracy was better for detecting perceptual targets than working-memory targets. However, search speed was equivalent for targets in both domains in all cases, suggesting parallel search functions co-existing across the two domains. The final experiment combined continuous color reproduction with eye tracking and neural recordings. Neural measures of posterior alpha lateralization, tracking the neural selection of working-memory and perceptual targets, suggested parallel search functions developing with similar time courses. Intriguingly, oculomotor gaze shifts showed a divergent pattern, with earlier gaze shifts associated with perceptual targets and later shifts with working-memory targets. Overall, the present studies establish a means for investigating search across working-memory and perceptual domains, suggest the co-existence of parallel search mechanisms, and invite new lines of enquiry.

Automation has been shown to weaken the sense of agency (SoA), the experience of controlling ones actions and their outcomes, by disrupting the predictive link between intention and effect. Explainable AI (XAI) has been proposed as a solution, yet the neurocognitive mechanisms through which explanations restore agency remain unclear. Across three EEG experiments using an autonomous-driving paradigm, we examined how automation and different forms of AI explanations modulate explicit agency judgments and early neural markers of agency-related predictive processing. In Experiment 1, automation reduced explicit feelings of control and was associated with reduced sensory attenuation, as reflected by increased P1-N1 amplitudes, decreased N1-P2 amplitudes, and delayed N1 latencies. In Experiment 2, distal (goal-level) explanations partially restored agency and selectively modulated early auditory responses, decreasing P1-N1 and increasing N1-P2 amplitudes. In Experiment 3, combining distal and proximal (trajectory-level) explanations produced the strongest behavioural and neural restoration of agency, yielding a graded attenuation of P1-N1 and enhanced N1-P2 responses along with accelerated N1 latencies. Across all experiments, mismatch negativity (MMN) remained unaffected, indicating that pre-attentive deviance detection is preserved regardless of agency or explainability. Together, these results identify component-specific EEG markers that track fluctuations in the sense of agency and demonstrate that multi-level intention sharing by AI systems enhances both predictive engagement and explicit control experience. This work provides a neurocognitive foundation for designing explainable autonomous systems capable of maintaining user agency.

Certain conscious contents--such as the covert name of a viewed object--arise involuntarily and resist suppression, a phenomenon captured by the Reflexive Imagery Task (RIT). Whether a subliminal prime can bias which of two simultaneously present objects captures such an involuntary naming response has not been established. We adapted a two-object RIT into a self-contained, browser-based instrument. Thirty-eight adults (M age = 21.6 years, SD = 2.3; 26 female) viewed 24 object pairs and were instructed to fixate a central cross, to refrain from thinking of the objects names, and to click an object whenever its name intruded into awareness. On each trial a masked prime (17 ms, flanked by pattern masks) was either the exact name of one object (Exact Word Prime), a semantic associate of one object (Semantic Prime), or a neutral string (No Prime), defining a primed side per trial. A post-experiment debriefing confirmed that participants noticed the masks but none consciously perceived or could identify the prime words, indicating that the primes were subliminal. Analyses excluded 91 of 912 trials (10.0%) with more than five clicks. The priming effect was robust across measures: an omnibus comparison of clicks across conditions was significant (Friedman {chi}{superscript 2}(2) = 6.59, p = .037); within both prime conditions participants clicked the primed side more than the not-primed side (Exact Word, p = .039; Semantic, p = .005); and the primed-to-not-primed ratio exceeded parity by roughly 57-59% (Laplace-smoothed ratio {approx} 1.58; one-sample Wilcoxon p < .001 for each). A Bayesian Poisson generalized linear mixed model with random participant intercepts confirmed a credible primed-side advantage (incidence rate ratio = 1.72, 95% credible interval [1.57, 1.90]) that did not differ between prime types. No general left/right response bias emerged. An exploratory ight-side x Exact Word Prime interaction was inconsistent across model classes and is reported as hypothesis-generating. The findings indicate that subliminal lexical and semantic primes can steer the spatial locus of involuntary object naming.

Statistical learning (SL) has been proposed to depend on the hippocampus, but traditional neuropsychological theories of long-term memory posit that the hippocampus is only necessary for explicit memory processes, not implicit memory processes. To reconcile these two accounts, we exposed 27 temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients to a continuous speech stream containing embedded trisyllabic words, then tested their statistical knowledge using both implicit and explicit behavioural measures. TLE patients showed impairments on two explicit measures of SL alongside intact performance on an implicit measure of SL. These results suggest that the hippocampus may only be necessary for the explicit expression, but not the initial acquisition or implicit expression, of statistical knowledge.

Aphasia is characterized by impaired word retrieval, yet most cognitive models of word production assume that underlying conceptual-semantic representations are largely preserved. This study investigated whether concept-level semantic structure remains decodable from BOLD signals in chronic post-stroke aphasia and which semantic models best explain neural representational geometry during covert semantic feature generation. Eight healthy adults and six individuals with chronic aphasia completed a dense-sampling fMRI protocol in which they viewed 57 pictured nouns while silently generating semantic features. Representational similarity analysis showed that an experiential model (Exp48) best matched neural geometry in both people with aphasia and controls, outperforming taxonomic (WordNet) and distributional (Word2Vec, GloVe) models. Using representational similarity decoding, concept identity was recovered well above chance in both groups. No relationship was found between decoding accuracy and language measures from individuals with aphasia. These findings suggest that experiential semantic structure remains robustly represented and decodable in chronic aphasia despite lesion-related language impairments, highlighting preserved conceptual representations alongside altered anatomy.

The vestibular system has been implicated in several aspects of self-representation, including bodily self-location, yet its role in episodic source and reality monitoring remains unclear. Moreover, symptoms of depersonalisation and derealisation (DPDR) have been associated with both vestibular dysfunction and altered source and reality monitoring. We tested whether noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation (nGVS) modulates source and reality monitoring during a word-encoding paradigm and whether this increased symptoms of DPDR. Sixty young adults (N = 30 active nGVS, N = 30 sham) encoded words that varied by context (spoken vs. imagined), agentic source (self vs. other), and valence (positive vs. threat) before completing source/reality judgments. Active nGVS reduced overall accuracy relative to sham on both reality and source monitoring. Across conditions, self-referential items were remembered with greater sensitivity compared to other-referential items, and spoken items were recalled with greater sensitivity than imagined items. We additionally show an interaction effect whereby active nGVS reduced accuracy specifically for imagined and threat-valenced items. Trait DPDR did not moderate the effects of stimulation, although higher trait DPDR was associated with a more liberal reality-monitoring response criterion. Results indicate that transient vestibular perturbation via nGVS can impair source monitoring for internalised and threatening stimuli and impairs cognitive distinctions between internally and externally generated events in general, supporting a role for vestibular input in maintaining self-other and reality boundaries in episodic memory.

The coordination of sensory processing and working memory (WM) is fundamental to cognition. Spatial organization of sensory processing and WM is known to be broadly distributed across the cortex, but finer-scale organization at the interfaces between these functions remains understudied. Although the notion of sharp parcellations of cortex into distinct functional modules dominates the field, a growing body of works support graded changes in function and anatomy in some cortical zones. Based on this and potential advantages of gradient organizational structure in frontal cortex, we hypothesized that sensory-WM interfaces in the frontal cortex are gradient-like, not boundary-like. We examined twenty bilateral cortical regions that participate in visual/auditory WM tasks. In five frontal cortical regions, group-level WM activation overlapped with sensory drive, but was spatially shifted. We compared subject-level (N=20) boundary and gradient models of change in function. Strong individual-level evidence for sensory-WM gradients was observed in pre-supplementary motor area, ventral premotor cortex, and anterior insula in both modalities and in dorsal premotor cortex for visual WM. Conversely, dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex yielded mixed results, favored distinct WM and sensory regions in the left hemisphere, and gave some evidence for gradients in the right hemisphere. These results provide evidence that sensory and WM regions in frontal cortex are largely not distinct with sharp boundaries at their interfaces but instead bleed into each other to form local rostral-caudal sensory-WM gradients. We speculate these gradients may allow efficient interfacing between sensory and WM representations, and/or fine-grained, task-dependent shifting between bottom-up sensory and top-down influences.

Understanding how the brain represents meaning at different levels of specificity, from general categories (bird) through combined phrases (nocturnal bird) to specific exemplars (owl), is a central question in semantic cognition and its disorders. The anterior temporal lobes (ATL) have been implicated in both activating stored conceptual representations and combining them, yet whether these two routes to conceptual content engage the ATL in the same way remains an open question. We recorded concurrent MEG-EEG from 36 participants reading 100 conceptual triads varying parametrically in specificity: general words (bird), adjective-noun phrases (nocturnal bird), and specific words (owl). Source analyses revealed a non-linear pattern in bilateral ATL (400-520ms): high-specificity concepts elicited greater activity than both low-specificity words and mid-specificity phrases. Bilateral inferior frontal cortex showed this effect with similar timing (430-630ms). N400 amplitude and ATL source activity showed a functional dissociation in their sensitivity to word frequency, ruling out a purely frequency account of the ATL and IFC effects. Results imply that accessing high-specificity concepts requires individuating stored representations among competitors, whereas phrases construct meaning through a different route. These findings extend the unified semantic hub account by revealing that computational operations within the ATL vary depending on task and stimulus demands.

Chronic spatial neglect after right-hemisphere stroke reflects network dysfunction, with recovery influenced by structural connectivity. Music recruits coordinated bi-hemispheric activity and may promote interhemispheric communication after stroke. Following our pilot study in post-stroke aphasia, we asked whether classical music modulates connectivity and behavior in chronic neglect. Three patients completed a crossover protocol comparing two weeks of daily audiovisual classical music with an audiobook control, with neglect, mood, quality-of-life, diffusion MRI, and resting-state high-density EEG measures. All showed right superior longitudinal fasciculus II disconnection with preserved callosal pathways. In N2, line bisection shifted leftward across all five lines after music, together with increased posterior interhemispheric theta-band weighted symbolic mutual information (wSMI), then deteriorated into the pathological range after the audiobook, without mood improvement. N1 showed mixed behavioral effects, with mood and quality of life improving after music. N3 showed no significant spatial improvement and worsened mood after music. These heterogeneous responses motivate larger studies of connectional predictors. The findings support the feasibility of classical music as an adjunct to neglect rehabilitation and suggest that cognitive changes may occur independently of mood, while the audiobook cannot be considered an inert control.

Amongst all the objects we encounter, tools are unique because they are tightly linked to predictable actions. Neuroimaging studies have reported selective responses in occipitotemporal and parietal cortices when viewing pictures of tools or hands. Whether these responses contain information about specific tool-use actions (e.g., rotation for keys), and whether such information shares a neural format with action execution, remains unclear. Here, we used fMRI and multivoxel pattern analysis to ask whether specific actions associated with viewed tools could be decoded and whether action-specific information generalised across viewing and acting. Participants (N=18; 11 females) viewed tool pictures and, in separate runs, pantomimed tool-use actions in response to tool names. Familiar tools differed in their associated action (rotate or squeeze) but were matched for grip type. Viewing tool pictures elicited tool-use action information in lateral occipitotemporal cortex (LOTC), parietal cortex, and even somatosensory cortex. Notably, hand-selective LOTC was the only region in which action decoding exceeded tool-identity decoding during both viewing and pantomime, suggesting sensitivity to learned relationships between objects and characteristic hand actions. However, neither region-of-interest nor whole-brain searchlight analyses yielded reliable cross-task decoding. Thus, although overlapping cortical regions contained information about tool-use actions during perception and production, we found no evidence that this information was represented in a shared multivoxel format. These findings suggest that seeing familiar tools evokes distributed information about their associated actions and sensory consequences, but that such information may be expressed in task-dependent formats rather than simply reinstating the neural patterns engaged during action production.

Efficient motion perception requires integrating immediate sensory evidence with internal representations shaped by experience. This influence of recent history can produce serial dependence effects (SDEs), in which current judgments are biased toward or away from the source of previous information. We examined SDEs in auditory, visual, and cued audiovisual motion-direction discrimination using aggregate psychometric measures and trial-level generalized linear mixed-effects models (GLMMs), which estimated the independent contributions of the previous stimulus direction and the participant's previous response. Participants completed unisensory (n=57) and cued audiovisual (n=48) motion-discrimination tasks. Aggregate analyses indicated attractive SDEs in auditory conditions, repulsive SDEs in visual conditions, and no net SDE in the audiovisual-cued condition. Trial-level modeling revealed a more nuanced structure: previous stimulus direction produced repulsive effects in both unisensory conditions, with previous visual direction influencing judgments across all conditions containing visual motion, whereas previous response produced attractive effects only when visual information was task-relevant. In the audiovisual-cued condition, the absence of a net psychometric shift was consistent with the opposing influences of an attractive response-history effect and a repulsive visual stimulus-history effect rather than an absence of serial dependence. These findings suggest that serial dependence in motion perception reflects dissociable and concurrently operating processes, including a predominantly visual, adaptation-like stimulus-history effect and a task-dependent, decision-related response-history effect.

BackgroundThe Trail Making Test (TMT) is a widely used instrument for assessing executive functions due to its sensitivity. But, its traditional scoring, based solely on total completion time, limits its specificity by losing the rich behaviour required to complete the task, involving integrating visual search, motor planning and task switching. A computerised implementation of the TMT (cTMT) allows high-resolution cursor trajectories to be recorded, offering access to fine-grained features of the trajectory, while an online administration improves accessibility and statistical power. ObjectiveThis study aimed to extract high-resolution cursor trajectory features from an online cTMT and evaluate their capacity to predict individual differences in core executive functions, such as visual working memory (VWM), inhibitory control and age, using machine learning, as well as validating the feasibility of a fully online data acquisition pipeline as a basis for digital biomarkers. MethodsParticipants completed an online battery comprising the cTMT and three validation tasks: the Change Detection Task (CDT), the Stop-Signal Task (SST) and the Go/No-Go task (GNG). A total of 104 features (26 features x Part A/B x whole-trial/first-10-targets) were extracted from cursor trajectories, including trajectory profiles and segmentation into latent states: Search, Travel and Hesitation. Regression models were trained within a nested Leave-One-Out cross-validation framework with inner 10-fold hyperparameter tuning, feature selection and standardisation applied strictly within folds. Performance was assessed via mean absolute error (MAE), normalised error (MAE/SD) and permutation testing; SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) were used to characterise feature importance. ResultscTMT features strongly predicted age across all models (p < .001), with MAEs roughly one-third lower than the targets dispersion, driven predominantly by distance-based "circuitousness" metrics from both parts. GNG accuracy and c-coefficient were both significantly predicted, but with a dissociated pattern: accuracy was best explained by Part B (alternation) metrics, whereas the c-coefficient was almost exclusively predicted by Part A (simple sequencing) metrics. SST response time (SSRT) was not significantly predicted by any model. VWM, characterised by the mean Cowan s K, was significantly predicted mainly by the more complex models, and involving state transitions and search phases in both Part A and B. ConclusionsMoving beyond completion time, cursor trajectory dynamics from an online cTMT provide a rich behavioural signal for predicting age, VWM capacity and distinct aspects of inhibitory control. The dissociation between Part A and Part B predictors supports differentiated cognitive processes within the TMT and positions the cTMT as a scalable, portable digital biomarker with promise for computational psychiatry and personalised neuropsychology.