Leptospirosis in Southern Sea Otters from Central California: Detection of Fatal Infections and Pathologic Findings

Leptospira interrogans serovar Pomona infections cause periodic outbreaks among California sea lions (CSL; Zalophus californianus) and sporadic deaths in phocids. However, infection frequency and associated health impacts are uncharacterized among sympatric threatened southern sea otters (SSO; Enhydra lutris nereis), which are important sentinels of coastal health. Given the broad impacts of L. interrogans on other marine mammals, our objective was to screen selected SSO for infection, determine whether leptospirosis contributes to SSO mortality, and describe leptospiral-associated pathology. A retrospective review (2005-2025) yielded 19 candidates that underwent case review, Leptospira immunohistochemistry (IHC), serology, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), with a special focus on kidney and liver pathology and samples. Kidney was PCR-positive for 74% (14/19) of suspected cases and for eight of these, DNA sequence-based serogroup typing detected L. interrogans serogroup Pomona. Seven of the 14 PCR-positive leptospirosis cases were classed as fatal based on positive renal IHC and moderate to severe tubulointerstitial nephritis. All fatal cases had anti-L. interrogans serovar Pomona antibody titers [≥]1:25,600. All remaining (n=7) PCR-positive cases were considered nonfatal leptospirosis cases due to minimal and/or unrelated renal pathology, and negative IHC. Nonfatal Leptospira-infected cases ranged from seronegative to low positive (1:400). Antibody titers for Leptospira PCR-negative cases were negative. For fatal cases, gross renal changes were often inapparent or characterized by miliary white cortical foci. Renal histopathology was characterized by tubulointerstitial nephritis, acute tubular necrosis and suppurative tubulitis with intratubular bacteria in fatal cases and corresponding positive staining for leptospiral antigen on IHC in lesions. Gross hepatic changes were also inapparent in fatal cases and histopathology was rare, characterized in one animal by hepatocellular disassociation and in two sea otters by limited leptospiral antigen detection by IHC. Most Leptospira-infected sea otters (71%, 10/14) stranded during higher rainfall months in California, suggesting possible land-to-sea transmission from terrestrial hosts. Given these findings, and because L. interrogans serovar Pomona infections have been confirmed in sympatric CSLs and terrestrial mammals from adjacent watersheds, focused investigation of potential marine and terrestrial disease transmission dynamics is needed.