Metabolite Profiling of Epimedium sagittatum Bee Pollen: Identified Bioactive Flavonoids with Multi-Disease Functional Food Potential

Epimedium sagittatum is a valuable traditional medical plant and an important pollen source for bees. To address the lack of knowledge on its metabolic profile, we systematically analyzed Epimedium bee pollen (EBP) using UPLC-MS/MS and compared it with Brassica rapa bee pollen (BBP), which is widely distributed worldwide, and Camellia sinensis bee pollen (CBP), derived from a common medicinal plant. We firstly identified 1,073 metabolites, mainly flavonoids (30.8%) and phenolic acids (15.3%) in EBP. Although EBP showed fewer overall metabolites than BBP and CBP, it contained the highest total flavonoid content and 19 unique compounds (8 flavonoids). Compared with BBP, EBP had 449 differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs, 410 flavonoids), and 1,083 DEMs (410 flavonoids) compared with CBP. Forty-five flavonoids showed the highest concentrations in EBP. KEGG enrichment revealed flavonoid biosynthesis pathway upregulation. Network pharmacology indicated the potential advantages of EBP in active ingredient content (e.g., kaempferol, tamarixetin, and sinensetin), modulating targets in prostatitis, obesity, and alcoholic fatty liver disease. These findings highlight EBP as a distinctive flavonoid-rich bee pollen with promising functional food potential and underscore the value of Chinese medicinal herbs as high-quality bee pollen sources.