Freedom of speech predicts animal welfare protection across the globe

The welfare of captive and wild animals is closely tied to human health, nutrition, and environmental wellbeing. Yet, until now, the global determinants of animal welfare remain unclear, as we lack quantitative global data on animal treatment. Here, by collapsing 13 indicators of animal welfare legislation across 50 major animal product-producing countries, we identify two key dimensions reflecting animal welfare protection and responsible consumption and production. While high-income countries with lower dependence on agriculture may have more opportunity to focus on animal welfare, our analysis suggests that the level social freedoms of citizens can dramatically overwhelms this economic signal. We find that the voice and accountability of citizens ultimately determines the extent of animal welfare protection, explaining 58% of the variation across the globe. Irrespective of environmental or economic conditions, structures that enhance political freedoms, civil liberties, and citizen participation in governance may provide the necessary foundation for developing legislation to promote animal welfare protection.