Is epigenetics Lamarck's revenge? The evolutionary and ecological impacts of DNA methylation in a California oak

DNA methylation, an epigenetic mechanism, has been proposed as a basis for Lamarckian inheritance of acquired characteristics. This hypothesis raises questions about environmental induction of DNA methylation, its persistence across generations, and associations with gene expression. We investigated these processes in the California oak, Quercus lobata. Based on 40 range-wide adult trees and their progeny grown in two common gardens, we tested four predictions: (i) DNA methylation is environmentally induced; (ii) methylation shows parent-offspring correspondence; (iii) environmentally induced patterns remain stable after transmission; and (iv) DNA methylation is associated with gene expression, varying by sequence context and TE proximity. Using methylomes and transcriptomes, we found support for all predictions except the third: CHH methylation was environmentally induced, but rarely showed parent/offspring correspondence, whereas CG methylation showed the opposite pattern. DNA methylation was associated with gene expression, depending on the sequence context and proximity to TEs. We identified one stress-associated gene with environmentally responsive CHH methylation that showed parent offspring correspondence in two common gardens in both gardens. Still, overall evidence for Lamarckian like evolution is not compelling. Nevertheless, DNA methylation was environmentally responsive, showed parent offspring correspondence, and was associated with gene expression, highlighting its potential importance for the ecological and evolutionary responses of long-lived trees to environmental change.