Experimental evolution and functional genetics identify KIC1 as a determinant of reduced artemisinin susceptibility in Bangladeshi Plasmodium falciparum

Bangladesh has greatly reduced malaria transmission, but persistent Plasmodium falciparum transmission in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), bordering Myanmar, remains a concern for elimination. Emerging artemisinin resistance could threaten remaining control efforts, making it important to identify determinants of reduced artemisinin susceptibility in CHT parasites. We combined long-term in vitro dihydroartemisinin (DHA) selection, whole-genome sequencing, functional genetics, and analysis of contemporaneous clinical isolates to define artemisinin-response variation in CHT P. falciparum. Starting with a 2018 patient-isolated, artemisinin-sensitive CHT clone, three independent cultures were exposed over 18 months to 27 cycles of stepwise DHA pressure up to 1600 nM. This generated CHT-R lines with elevated RSA survival relative to parental/sibling controls (4.0-6.5% versus <1%; 7-11-fold increase) and faster post-DHA recovery than CHT-S-sib (5.2 {+/-} 0.3 versus 10.1 {+/-} 0.57 days). Whole-genome sequencing identified convergent disruption of PF3D7_0606000, encoding KIC1 (Kelch13 Interacting Candidate1), a protein linked to the Kelch13-associated endocytic compartment; no pfkelch13 mutations emerged. Independent DHA-selected lines acquired distinct stop-gain or frameshift mutations predicted to truncate KIC1, and targeted pfkic1 disruption in parental CHT-S increased RSA survival and accelerated recovery, functionally validating KIC1 as a contributor to reduced artemisinin susceptibility. To link the in vitro selection findings to naturally circulating parasites, we tested whether pfkic1 variation was associated with artemisinin response in an independent set of CHT isolates. We integrated newly generated RSA measurements and whole-genome variation from lab adapted field isolates all carrying wild-type pfkelch13, with patient clearance values from our CHT artemether-lumefantrine efficacy study. Among 22 isolates, RSA survival ranged from 0.00 to 6.44%, with 12 exceeding the 1% in vitro ART-R threshold and was associated with PC50, the time required to clear 50% of the initial parasite density, but not parasite clearance half-life (PCt1/2). In this field-isolate dataset, targeted pfkic1 gene-score analysis and elastic-net modeling provided supportive evidence that natural variation at the pfkic1 locus is associated with PC50 and RSA survival; an exploratory genome-wide gene-score scan nominated additional candidate loci for future study. Together, these findings identify KIC1 as a functionally validated determinant of reduced artemisinin susceptibility in a Bangladeshi parasite background and suggest that artemisinin-response variation in CHT parasites may involve perturbation of the Kelch13-associated endocytic pathway beyond canonical pfkelch13 mutations.