Biological and ecological insights from a rare underwater footage of the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) in the Mediterranean Sea

The white shark Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) is one of the most iconic and threatened marine predators globally and is listed as critically endangered by the IUCN in the Mediterranean Sea, where populations are primarily affected by fishing pressure and the degradation of critical habitats. Available information on Mediterranean white sharks mostly relies on fishing interactions and opportunistic surface records, thereby limiting evaluations on the species ecology. Here, we report an exceptionally rare underwater encounter with this species, documented by divers involved in an expedition aimed at removing ghost fishing gear from a World War II shipwreck in the Strait of Sicily (SoS), central Mediterranean. Given the exceptional nature of this observation, we analysed the video footage in detail with the aim of providing morphological information and novel insights into the species ecology. The footage analysis also allowed close observations on behavioural aspects and on interspecific and parasitic associations, thus providing information that is rarely achievable through surface sightings or from captured individuals, which historically represent the majority of records for this species in the region. To contextualize this observation within the SoS--an area suggested to function as a nursery and reproductive ground for the species--we also provide an updated compilation of records reported in the scientific literature over the last decade, adding 18 new records to existing datasets. This study highlights the value of shipwrecks as observation sites for rare and elusive species, and underscores the importance of non-invasive, video-based approaches in advancing knowledge of a species whose ecology in the Mediterranean remains poorly understood.