Rust fungi secretomes contain structurally diverse effector families including cysteine-rich metal-binding proteins

Rust fungi are significant threats to global food security, causing substantial damage to crops through their ability to adapt and evolve new strains that overcome resistance. These obligate biotrophs infect host plants by secreting effector proteins that manipulate host physiology to promote infection and colonisation. We used AlphaFold2 to investigate structural conservation among effector proteins for the secretomes of Melampsora lini and four Puccinia species. AlphaFold2 yielded high-confidence predictions for 45.7% of the 27,090 secreted proteins, while 19% were poor quality. Comparative analysis revealed extensive structural diversity across the rust secretomes, with all thirteen known rust Avr proteins belonging to different clusters apart from AvrSr13 and AvrSr33. Nevertheless, there were still numerous large clusters of structurally-related proteins, including 59 clusters with over 50 members each, three of which contained known Avr proteins. Of the major structural families defined in other fungi, the rust species studied here only contained FOLD and ToxA-like families. Structural analysis of cysteine-rich proteins revealed over a thousand effector candidates featuring zinc-binding sites, with approximately 75% predicted to be cytoplasmic effectors. In contrast, cysteine-rich apoplastic effector candidates were characterized by a high frequency of disulfide bonds. One family of predicted metal-binding proteins was greatly expanded in P. graminis f. sp. tritici and includes AvrSr13 and AvrSr33. We confirmed that purified AvrSr13 and AvrSr22 proteins bind to zinc in vitro using biochemical assays. Taken together, structural modeling provides new avenues to study sequence-unrelated effectors and highlights the high degree of diversity in the effector repertoires of rust species.