The Hidden Architecture of Brain Structural Variability in 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome: A Multi-site Study
Boen, R.; O'Hora, K. P.; Fung, H.; Kushan, L.; Schleifer, C. H.; Dietterich, T. E.; Amir, C. M.; Klein, S.; Kang, J. W.; Wang, H. R.; Hughes, D. E.; Villalon-Reina, J. E.; Kang, M. J. Y.; Im, Y.; Kumar, K.; Alnaes, D.; Angkustsiri, K.; Antshel, K. M.; Bakker, G.; Bassett, A. S.; Butcher, N. J.; Campbell, L. E.; Chawner, S. J. R. A.; Chow, E. W. C.; Craig, M. C.; Crossley, N. A.; Daly, E.; Di Fabio, F.; Doherty, J. L.; Emanuel, B. S.; Fiksinski, A. M.; Forsyth, J. K.; Frascarelli, M.; Fremont, W. P.; Gudbrandsen, M.; Gur, R. E.; Hallmayer, J. F.; Jalbrzikowski, M.; Kates, W. R.; Linden, D. E.;
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Importance: 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is among the strongest genetic risk factors for neuropsychiatric disorders and has marked effects on brain structure. Yet, it remains unclear which neuroanatomical features reflect uniform effects of the deletion versus inter-individual biological processes relevant to psychiatric outcomes. Identifying these features is critical for developing targeted treatments and interventions. Objective: To identify brain regions where 22q11DS exerts its most consistent and most variable impacts, and to test whether these patterns align with normative neurotransmitter receptor distributions and cortical growth trajectories. Design: Multisite cross-sectional case-control study. Setting: T1-weighted brain MRI data were obtained across 15 scanners. MRI data underwent standardized processing, quality control procedures and statistical site-adjustment using ComBat. Participants: A total of N = 438 individuals with 22q11DS (5-54 years, 48% females) and 380 typically developing controls (6-58 years, 48% females). Main Outcomes and Measures: Primary outcomes were global and regional cortical thickness and surface area . Mean and dispersion estimates were calculated using double generalized linear models, correcting for age, age2, sex (and intracranial volume for surface area). Quantile shift functions characterized fine-scale distributional differences. Sensitivity analyses adjustedt for co-occurring neuropsychiatric disorders, antipsychotic use and deletion subtype. Secondary outcomes included spatial correspondence between regional structural alterations and normative maps of neurotransmitter receptor density and cortical expansion. Results: Compared with controls, individuals with 22q11DS showed widespread mean differences in cortical thickness and surface area. Notably, 22q11DS was associated with greater regional heterogeneity in both measures, except for reduced dispersion in the anterior cingulate. Effects were attenuated after covariate adjustment. Cortical thickness differences spatially overlapped with regions enriched for glutamatergic and GABAergic receptors. There was partial evidence linking surface area dispersion patterns to normative cortical growth trajectories. Conclusions and Relevance: 22q11DS exerts broad effects on cortical structure consistent with a global developmental mechanism, reflected in widespread mean shifts. Beyond these, region-specific variability, particularly in cortical thickness, suggests individualized neurobiological processes. The anterior cingulate emerges as a region of consistent structural deviation. Overall, structural variability in 22q11DS aligns with normative patterns of excitatory-inhibitory signaling and cortical development, implicating these pathways as potential targets for intervention.
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