Beyond viability: Seed ageing alters development and phenology of adult plants

O_LIStored seeds are crucial repositories of plant genetic diversity. However, long-term storage inevitably causes seed deterioration and loss of viability, and chemical processes within the seeds during storage can influence germination and seedling establishment. Emerging evidence suggests that seed ageing can also affect traits of adult plants, yet the extent to which this phenomenon is relevant across species, particularly for wild plant species with high genetic variation, remains unclear. C_LIO_LITo address this, we focused on 14 grassland species and subjected their seeds to simulated long-term storage by exposing them to artificial ageing conditions (60% rH, 45{degrees}C). We then compared plants grown from the aged seeds with plants from fresh seeds in a common garden experiment. C_LIO_LIArtificially aged seeds germinated later, the developing seedlings had lower survival rates and reduced growth. Adult plants grown from aged seeds flowered later, produced fewer flowers, and had less biomass by the end of the first vegetation period than those from fresh seeds. The effect of the ageing treatment varied between species, but the trend was overall significant across species, with minor differences between perennials and annuals. Interestingly, in perennial plants, the effects vanished or were inverted in the second growing season, with plants growing from aged seeds flowering earlier and producing more biomass. C_LIO_LISynthesis. Our results show that seed storage affects seedling performance, plant growth, and flowering phenology. These direct storage effects should be considered when using stored seeds for species conservation, ecosystem restoration, or evolutionary research relying on stored seeds. C_LI