Multi-omic signatures of genetic mechanisms inform on type 2 diabetes biology and patient heterogeneity

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a heterogeneous disease shaped by genetic pathways related to insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction, but how this heterogeneity is reflected molecularly remains unclear. We integrated partitioned polygenic scores (pPS) with proteomic and metabolomic profiling to define molecular signatures of T2D and their clinical relevance. We analyzed UK Biobank participants with genomic, proteomic, and metabolomic data. In a disease-free training subset, we used LASSO regression to identify multi-omic signatures associated with each pPS by jointly modeling proteins and metabolites. In an independent testing set, we constructed multi-omic scores and examined their associations with clinical traits and diabetes-related outcomes. Mediation analyses were used to investigate putative causal pathways. Key findings were evaluated in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). We identified distinct multi-omic signatures that capture the molecular architecture of T2D genetic risk across physiological subtypes. Compared with genetic scores alone, multi-omic pPS showed larger effect sizes and better disease discrimination. These scores recapitulated subtype-specific physiology and were associated with T2D risk. The Beta-Cell 2 multi-omic score showed marked stratification for insulin use, which was replicated in MESA, where it also predicted future insulin use. Mediation analyses implicated lipoprotein remodeling and fatty acid metabolism in the Lipodystrophy 1 cluster, accounting for up to 45% of the total effect of pPS on T2D risk. Integrating process-specific genetic risk with circulating multi-omic profiles reveals biologically distinct endotypes of T2D and supports a framework for improved patient stratification and risk assessment.