Flexible Asexuality: Naturally occurring variation in mechanisms of parthenogenesis within lineages and individuals of a facultative parthenogen, Megacrania batesii

Parthenogenesis is relatively rare and often regarded as an evolutionary dead end. Despite this, certain parthenogenetic animal species have endured for millions of years, but it is unclear what enables the persistence of some parthenogenetic lineages. Transitions from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction can occur through different evolutionary processes that give rise to diverse cytological reproductive mechanisms. These mechanisms are likely to influence genetic diversity, especially in the early stages after the transition to parthenogenesis and may thus affect lineage persistence. To understand such evolutionary transitions, we used experimental crosses to investigate the mechanism of parthenogenesis and the immediate genetic consequences of switching from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction in the facultatively parthenogenetic phasmid Megacrania batesii. We obtained DNA sequence data from multiple lineages propagated over three generations via sex, parthenogenesis, or transitions between reproductive modes. We quantified heterozygosity and within-family genetic variation and compared the genetic patterns with predictions for known mechanisms of parthenogenesis. We found that a single generation of parthenogenesis typically resulted in (near-)complete loss of heterozygosity and an absence of within-family genetic variation, consistent with automixis with gamete duplication or terminal fusion and little/no recombination. However, we also found evidence of variation in the mechanism of parthenogenesis among lineages and even within the same individual, associated with drastic differences in the amount of heterozygosity and within-family genetic variation maintained across generations. Our findings show that considerable variation in parthenogenetic mechanisms can exist within populations and suggest that such variation could influence the persistence and evolution of parthenogenetic lineages.