Single-molecule spatial genomics reveals the multi-scale organization and plasticity of extrachromosomal DNA in glioblastoma

Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA) is a major driver of intratumoral heterogeneity and is associated with poor clinical outcomes across cancers, yet how individual ecDNA molecules are organized and regulated within intact tumors remains unknown. Here, we leveraged single-molecule, multi-modal spatial genomics to resolve the three-dimensional chromatin organization and transcriptional activity of individual EGFR-containing ecDNA molecules in glioblastoma (GBM) cells in vitro, in orthotopic xenografts, and in patient-derived GBM tissue. At the larger scale, we find that distinct GBM molecular and functional states emerge depending on the local cellular environment. EGFR expression was markedly different between GBM subpopulations, and perturbations of EGFR dosage shifted GBM cellular states. ecDNA expression was modulated by multiple mechanisms, including variation in copy number, chromatin organization, DNA sequence, and chromosomal reintegration, which were simultaneously measured within the same cells. At the single-molecule scale, ecDNA adopts a physically expanded chromatin configuration with larger ecDNA molecules having higher transcriptional activity and interaction with active transcriptional machinery. ecDNA regulation was coordinated within cells and across GBM states, and ecDNA copy number, structure, and transcription were spatially organized across the tumor architecture. Co-culturing GBM cells with neurons recapitulated key features of infiltrative regions, including lower EGFR expression, reduced ecDNA copy number, and increased chromosomal reintegration, suggesting a causal role for the microenvironment in shaping ecDNA regulation. Collectively, these findings support a model in which GBM states and ecDNA are linked, plastic, and influenced by microenvironmental contexts, revealing a previously inaccessible layer of genome organization underlying tumor heterogeneity and malignant cell behavior.