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HS-AFM visualizes stepwise condensation dynamics in RNA-driven LLPS

MAHMUD, S. N.; Shoukat, N.; Kodera, N.; Sato, H.

2025-12-09 biophysics
10.64898/2025.12.08.693082 bioRxiv
Show abstract

Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) is a fundamental mechanism of intracellular biomolecular condensation formation, involving both proteins and RNAs. While RNA self-assembly has been implicated in condensate formation, the molecular mechanisms of RNA-driven condensation remain unclear. To investigate RNAs role in LLPS, we employed high-speed AFM (HS-AFM) to observe real-time, single-molecule dynamics of RNA condensation in near-physiological conditions. HS-AFM imaging revealed that RNA-driven condensation occurs through a multistep process: intramolecular (cis) interactions first promote intermolecular RNA clustering, and these small clusters subsequently assemble into larger condensates, ultimately forming mature RNA condensates. Our data provides the first single-molecule visualization of RNA-driven LLPS formation, demonstrating its stepwise progression from the folding of single RNA molecules to condensate assembly. This study highlights HS-AFM as a powerful tool for visualizing the molecular transitions underlying RNA-driven phase separation, allowing real-time observation of RNA folding events and condensate formation dynamics.

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