Diurnal dynamics and psychobiological regulation of cell-free mitochondrial and nuclear DNA in human saliva

Cell-free mitochondrial DNA (cf-mtDNA) has emerged as a dynamic molecular signal responsive to psychological stress and a potential biomarker of stress-related physiological adaptations. While previous work has established the acute stress reactivity of cf-mtDNA in saliva, little is known about its diurnal regulation. In this intensive-sampling study, we characterized the diurnal dynamics of saliva cf-mtDNA across one weekday and one weekend day in healthy adults (N = 25, 52% female, 826 samples). Saliva was collected at awakening, during the first hour post-awakening, and at hourly intervals throughout the day. Using a quantitative PCR-based assay, we observed a robust cf-mtDNA awakening response, with concentrations peaking approximately 45 minutes after waking (2.5-fold change, Cohens d = 0.90), followed by a second peak at 180 minutes post-awakening (5.7-fold change, d = 1.70) and relatively stable levels thereafter. Saliva cf-mtDNA closely tracked cell-free nuclear DNA (cf-nDNA) across time points (rS = .85), suggesting shared release mechanisms. Diurnal cf-mtDNA showed limited correspondence with cortisol and other hormones in saliva. Psychosocial stress indicators--including daily hassles, lack of social support, negative emotional affect, trait anxiety, fatigue, and depressive symptoms--were associated with higher awakening cf-mtDNA levels, a diminished awakening response, and lower diurnal variability. These findings suggest that saliva cf-mtDNA exhibits a diurnal rhythm and is sensitive to psychosocial stress exposure. By establishing its diurnal patterns and individual-level variability, this study advances saliva cf-mtDNA as a promising non-invasive biomarker to dynamically capture stress-related mitochondrial signaling.