Structural enrichment for captive macaques - a systematic review and meta-analysis of behavioral outcomes

Macaques play an important role in biomedical research due to their genetic and physiological similarities to humans. However, their use raises significant ethical concerns regarding welfare, particularly in laboratory environments often lacking natural complexity. Environmental enrichment aims to promote welfare by encouraging natural behaviors and providing choice. This systematic review and meta-analysis synthesizes 61 years of research assessing the impact of structural modifications to the home cage (structural enrichment) on the behavior of captive macaques. We employed multilevel meta-analytical models to pool our data. Our findings demonstrate a net beneficial effect of structural enrichment on macaque behavior, notably in significantly reducing negative behaviors such as stereotypies, self-directed harm, and aggression. This positive effect was evident even when enrichment was added to already enriched conditions. We found that enrichment that incorporates varied physical and feeding strategies were most effective, underscoring that complex, varied environmental elements are crucial for welfare improvement. Simple increases in unfurnished space, by contrast, showed minimal benefit. The promotion of positive, species-typical behaviors was less consistent across studies, but nonetheless highlights structural enrichments potential to foster a broader natural behavioral repertoire. We also observed considerable variability in outcomes, suggesting that enrichment efficacy is influenced by multiple factors, and requires careful contextual assessment, as a one-size-fits-all approach is rarely optimal.