Emergence of Genetic Sex Determination in an Environmentally Sex-Determined Animal

The evolution of genetic sex determination (GSD) from environmental sex determination (ESD) remains a fundamental issue in evolutionary biology. However, the mechanisms driving such a transition, particularly in its earliest stages, are largely unknown. Here, we report on a genetic variant in the ESD species, Daphnia pulex, in which structural variations and selection on chromosome have suppressed recombination. This suppression has facilitated the accumulation of antagonistic features of the two chromosome- haplotypes, resulting in heterozygosity and differentiation of the sex-determining gene Dfh on two haplotypes. Consequently, this process has driven the emergence of a mixed-mating system, in which sex determination is jointly regulated by genetic and environmental factors. Additionally, we detected ongoing divergence in chromosomal structure between the two haplotypes at the population level. These findings suggest that processes analogous to early sex-chromosome evolution are occurring in this ESD species, offering novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the emergence of GSD.