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Modular Assembly of Biohybrid Machines Using Force-Enhanced Skeletal Muscle Actuators

Yang, H.; Williamson, A. S.; Seok, J. M.; Ranke, D.; McGee, D.; Trotto, E.; Chin, K.; Patel, D. K.; Feinberg, A. W.; Cohen-Karni, T.; Webster-Wood, V.

2025-07-10 bioengineering
10.1101/2025.07.06.663299 bioRxiv
Show abstract

Muscle-based biohybrid systems integrate living muscle with engineered structures to create soft robots, biological models, and regenerative platforms. However, current actuators often lack strength and are difficult to assemble into complex devices. This study presents a suspended compliant skeleton that enhances muscle maturation by providing passive resistance, enabling high-stroke self-exercise without external stimulation. Using immortalized C2C12 cells, the resulting actuators achieved millimeter-scale strokes and millinewton-scale forces, surpassing previous benchmarks. Magnetic interfaces embedded in the skeleton allowed modular assembly into multi-degree-of-freedom devices such as grippers, arms, and positioning stages. These interfaces also support actuator replacement and repair, improving resilience and scalability. This approach significantly boosts engineered muscle performance and offers a robust, modular platform for building high-functioning, repairable biohybrid machines.

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"Similar papers" are the closest papers from that journal in the model's embedding space. They show what the match is built on, but the ranking comes mostly from a classifier over the whole training set, not from these examples alone.