Impact of Group Size and Habitat Disturbance on Parasitic Infection in Free-ranging Proboscis Monkeys

Group-living primates experience the benefits and costs associated with sociality, including an elevated risk of parasite transmission. However, the relative influence of group type (i.e., social structure), group size, and habitat disturbance on parasitic infection remains unclear, particularly in Southeast Asian primates. In this study, the abundance of intestinal parasites in proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) inhabiting a riverine forest along the Menanggul River, Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, was investigated. Fecal samples (n = 160) were collected from one-male-multifemale and all-male groups in areas with varying levels of anthropogenic disturbance, with efforts made to ensure that each sample originated from a different individual. In addition, the effects of group type, group size, and sampling location on parasite abundance were evaluated using fecal egg counts and Bayesian models. Three dominant parasite species groups (Trichuris sp., Strongyloides fuelleborni, and Oesophagostomum aculeatum) with an overall infection prevalence of 81.25% were identified. Results showed that group type did not significantly affect parasite abundance. However, group size showed a positive correlation with the abundance of Trichuris sp. and a negative correlation with S. fuelleborni and O. aculeatum. In addition, our models revealed that the infection load of Trichuris sp. decreased with increasing distance from the river mouth, which was used as a proxy for a disturbance gradient, whereas O. aculeatum exhibited higher infection load at greater distances, indicating lower prevalence in more disturbed downstream areas. Thus, parasite abundance in proboscis monkeys may be shaped by social and environmental factors, with taxa-specific responses likely reflecting differences in environmental persistence and transmission ecology.