Water parameters and hydrodynamics in rivers and caves hosting Astyanax mexicanus populations reveal macro-, meso- and micro-habitat characteristics

The Mexican tetra (Astyanax mexicanus) has emerged as a leading model for evolutionary biology and the study of adaptation to extreme subterranean environments. The river-dwelling morph of the species is distributed in Mexico and Texas, while the blind and cave-adapted morph inhabits the karstic caves of the Sierra Madre Oriental in northeastern Mexico. The molecular, cellular and genetic underpinnings of Astyanax cavefish evolution are increasingly studied, but our understanding of its habitat and environment is incomplete, limiting the interpretations of its morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations. In particular, the physico-chemical parameters of the water and the hydrological regimes to which cavefish are subjected are largely unexplored. From 2009 to 2025, we have recorded the physico-chemical parameters of the water at localities hosting Astyanax mexicanus cavefish and surface fish in the Sierra de El Abra and Sierra La Colmena regions of the states of San Luis Potosi and Tamaulipas, Mexico. We sampled 13 caves out of the 33 known Astyanax caves and 30 surface stations (rivers, springs, ponds). Data were collected using a variety of devices and probes, including both point measurements (at the end of winter) and longitudinal measurements (throughout the year). The comparison of epigean and hypogean waters showed strong signatures of the two macro-habitats. As compared to surface, on average cave water was cooler, much less conductive and highly anoxic. Moreover, a comparison between different caves (i.e., meso-habitat level) revealed significant differences in both specific water parameters and hydrological regimes. One- or two-year longitudinal recordings demonstrated that some caves exhibit relatively stable hydrological regimes, while others experience multiple, sudden and significant fluctuations. Finally, distinct pools within a single cave showed notable differences, displaying a reproducible increasing gradient in water temperature as a function of distance from the cave entrance, and revealing specificities at the micro-habitat level. We interpret our comprehensive dataset on cave water quality and hydrodynamics in the context of an integrated view of cave biology and the evolution of cave organisms.