Asymmetric limits on timely interventions from noisy epidemic data

Deciding on when to initiate or relax an intervention in response to an emerging infectious disease is both difficult and important. Uncertainties from noise in epidemiological surveillance data must be hedged against the potentially unknown and variable costs of false alarms and delayed actions. Here we clarify and quantify how case under-reporting and latencies in case ascertainment, which are predominant surveillance noise sources, can restrict the timeliness of decision-making. Decisions are modelled as binary choices between responding or not that are informed by reported case curves or transmissibility estimates from those curves. Optimal responses are triggered by thresholds on case numbers or estimate confidence levels, with thresholds set by the costs of the various choices. We show that, for growing epidemics, both noise sources induce additive delays on hitting any case-based thresholds and multiplicative reductions in our confidence in estimated reproduction numbers or growth rates. However, for declining epidemics, these noise sources have counteracting effects on case data and limited cumulative impact on transmissibility estimates. We find this asymmetry persists even if more sophisticated feedback control algorithms that consider the longer-term effects of interventions are employed. Standard surveillance data therefore provide substantially weaker support for deciding when to initiate a control action or intervention than for determining when to relax it. This information bottleneck during epidemic growth may justify proactive intervention choices.