Methaemoglobin as a surrogate marker of primaquine antihypnozoite activity in Plasmodium vivax malaria: a systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis

BackgroundThe 8-aminoquinolines, primaquine and tafenoquine, are the only available drugs for the radical cure of Plasmodium vivax hypnozoites. Prior evidence suggests that there is dose-dependent 8-aminoquinoline induced methaemoglobinaemia and that higher methaemoglobin concentrations are associated with a lower risk of P. vivax recurrence. We undertook a systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis to examine the utility of methaemoglobin as a surrogate endpoint for 8-aminoquinoline antihypnozoite activity to prevent P. vivax recurrence. MethodsWe conducted a systematic search of Medline, Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library, from 1 January 2000 to 29 September 2022 inclusive, of prospective clinical efficacy studies of acute, uncomplicated P. vivax malaria mono-infections treated with radical curative doses of primaquine. The day 7 methaemoglobin concentration was the primary surrogate outcome of interest. The primary clinical outcome was the time to first P. vivax recurrence between day 7 and day 120 after enrolment. We used multivariable Cox proportional-hazards regression with site random-effects to characterise the time to first recurrence as a function of the day 7 methaemoglobin percentage (log2 transformed), adjusted for the partner schizontocidal drug, the primaquine regimen duration as a proxy for the total primaquine dose (mg/kg), the daily primaquine dose (mg/kg), and other factors. The systematic review protocol was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42023345956). FindingsWe identified 219 P. vivax efficacy studies, of which eight provided relevant individual-level data from patients treated with primaquine; all were randomised, parallel arm clinical trials assessed as having low or moderate risk of bias. In the primary analysis dataset, there were 1747 G6PD-normal patients enrolled from 24 study sites across 8 different countries (Indonesia, Brazil, Vietnam, Thailand, Peru, Colombia, Ethiopia, India). We observed an increasing dose-response relationship between the daily weight-adjusted primaquine dose and day 7 methaemoglobin level. For a given primaquine dose regimen, an observed doubling in day 7 methaemoglobin percentage was associated with an estimated 30% reduction in the risk of vivax recurrence (adjusted hazard ratio = 0.70; 95% CI = [0.57, 0.86]; p = 0.0005). These pooled estimates were largely consistent across the study sites. Using day 7 methaemoglobin as a surrogate endpoint for recurrence would reduce required sample sizes by approximately 40%. ConclusionsFor a given primaquine regimen, higher methaemoglobin on day 7 was associated with a reduced risk of P. vivax recurrence. Under our proposed causal model, this justifies the use of methaemoglobin as a surrogate endpoint for primaquine antihypnozoite activity in G6PD normal patients with P. vivax malaria.