TNF signaling mediates cellular immune function and promotes malaria parasite killing in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae

Tumor Necrosis Factor- (TNF-) is a proinflammatory cytokine and a master regulator of immune cell function in vertebrates. While previous studies have implicated TNF signaling in invertebrate immunity, the roles of TNF in mosquito innate immunity and vector competence have yet to be explored. Herein, we confirm the identification of a conserved TNF- pathway in Anopheles gambiae consisting of the TNF- ligand, Eiger, and its cognate receptors Wengen and Grindelwald. Through gene expression analysis, RNAi, and in vivo injection of recombinant TNF-, we provide direct evidence for the requirement of TNF signaling in regulating mosquito immune cell function by promoting granulocyte midgut attachment, increased granulocyte abundance, and oenocytoid rupture. Moreover, our data demonstrate that TNF signaling is an integral component of anti-Plasmodium immunity that limits malaria parasite survival. Together, our data support the existence of a highly conserved TNF signaling pathway in mosquitoes that mediates cellular immunity and influences Plasmodium infection outcomes, offering potential new approaches to interfere with malaria transmission by targeting the mosquito host.