Phylogenetic and population structure of the nod-free but nodulating Bradyrhizobium phylogroup

Bradyrhizobium is a main rhizobial lineage of which most members nodulate legume plants using Nod factors (NFs) synthetized by the nod genes. However, members of the Photosynthetic supergroup (phylogroup) within Bradyrhizobium (PB) are nod-free but still capable of establishing nitrogen-fixing nodules with some tropical legumes of the Aeschynomene genus. These unusual findings are based on the genomic sequences of only 13 PB strains, and almost all were isolated from Aeschynomene nodules. Here, we investigate the diversity of Bradyrhizobium in grassland, forest, and rice field by rpoB amplicon sequencing and report that PB is mainly associated with rice root and rhizosphere. Moreover, we sequenced 209 new PB members isolated mostly from the rice field. The extended PB supergroup comprises three major clades: a basal clade with significant expansion of its diversity, followed by an intermediate clade composed by two strains, and a new clade exclusively represented by our new strains. Although the PB strains universally lack the canonical nod genes, all 28 assayed strains covering the broad diversity of these clades induced nodules on Aeschynomene indica. Interestingly, the three clades displayed significant differences in the efficiency of symbiosis, aligning well with their phylogenetic branching order. Our strain collection expands the ecological, phylogenetic and functional diversity of nod-free but nodulating Bradyrhizobium. With this expanded diversity, we conclude that the NF-independent nodulation of Aeschynomene is a common trait of this supergroup, in contrast to the photosynthetic trait originally thought as its unifying feature.