Biochemical analysis, photosynthetic gene (psbA) down-regulation, and in silico receptor prediction in weeds in response to exogenous application of phenolic acids and their analogs

Chemical herbicides are the primary weed management tool, although several incidences of herbicide resistance have been emerged, causing serious threat to agricultural sustainability. Plant derived phenolic acids with herbicidal potential may provide organic and eco-friendly substitute to such harmful chemicals. In present study, efficacy of two phenolic compounds, ferulic acid (FA) and gallic acid (GA), were evaluated in vitro and in vivo against three prevalent herbicide-resistant weed species (Sinapis arvensis, Lolium multiflorum and Parthenium hysterophorus). FA and GA not only suppressed the weed germination (80 to 60 % respectively), but also inhibited biochemical and photosynthetic pathway of weeds. In addition to significantly lowering the total protein and chlorophyll contents of the targeted weed species, the application of FA and GA treatments increased the levels of antioxidant enzymes and lipid peroxidation. Photosynthetic gene (psbA) expression was downregulated (10 to 30 folds) post 48 h of phenolic application. In silico analysis for receptor identification of FA and GA in psbA protein (D1) showed histidine (his-198) and threonine (thr-286) as novel receptors of FA and GA. These two receptors differ from the D1 amino acid receptors which have previously been identified (serine-264 and histidine-215) in response to PSII inhibitor herbicides. Based on its toxicity responses, structural analogs of FA were also designed. Four out of twelve analogs (0.25 mM) significantly inhibited weed germination (30 to 40%) while enhancing their oxidative stress. These results are unique which provide fundamental evidence of phytotoxicity of FA and GA and their analogs to develop cutting-edge plant based formulation to suppress weed growth in future.