Socioeconomic inequality in SARS-CoV-2 testing and COVID-19 outcomes in UK Biobank over the first year of the pandemic: can inequalities be explained byselection bias?

BackgroundStructural barriers to testing may introduce selection bias in COVID-19 research. We explore whether changes to testing and lockdown restrictions introduce time-specific selection bias into analyses of socioeconomic position (SEP) and SARS-CoV-2 infection. MethodsUsing UK Biobank (N = 420 231; 55 % female; mean age = 56{middle dot}3 [SD=8{middle dot}01]) we estimated the association between SEP and i) being tested for SARS-CoV-2 infection versus not being tested ii) testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection versus testing negative and iii) testing negative for SARS-CoV-2 infection versus not being tested, at four distinct time-periods between March 2020 and March 2021. We explored potential selection bias by examining the same associations with hypothesised positive (ABO blood type) and negative (hair colour) control exposures. Finally, we conducted a hypothesis-free phenome-wide association study to investigate how individual characteristics associated with testing changed over time. FindingsThe association between low SEP and SARS-CoV-2 testing attenuated across time-periods. Compared to individuals with a degree, individuals who left school with GCSEs or less had an OR of 1{middle dot}05 (95% CI: 0{middle dot}95 to 1{middle dot}16) in March-May 2020 and 0{middle dot}98 (95% CI: 0{middle dot}94 to 1{middle dot}02) in January-March 2021. The magnitude of the association between low SEP and testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 infection increased over the same time-period. For the same comparisons, the OR for testing positive increased from 1{middle dot}27 (95% CI: 1{middle dot}08 to 1{middle dot}50), to 1{middle dot}73 (95% CI: 1{middle dot}59 to 1{middle dot}87). We found little evidence of an association between both control exposures and all outcomes considered. Our phenome-wide analysis highlighted a broad range of individual traits were associated with testing, which were distinct across time-periods. InterpretationThe association between SEP (and indeed many individual traits) and SARS-CoV-2 testing changed over time, indicating time-specific selection pressures in COVID-19. However, positive, and negative control analyses suggest that changes in the magnitude of the association between SEP and SARS-CoV-2 infection over time were unlikely to be explained by selection bias and reflect true increases in socioeconomic inequalities. FundingUniversity of Bristol; UK Medical Research Council; British Heart Foundation; European Union Horizon 2020; Wellcome Trust and The Royal Society; National Institute of Health Research; UK Economic and Social Research Council