From trend to threat? Assessing the sustainability of wild edible plant foraging by linking local perception to ecological inference

Wild edible plants as culturally-appropriate sources of nutrition and for food security are now well-recognised. In Europe, the use of wild edible plants is shifting from a subsistence activity to an emerging trend in high-end gastronomy. The environmental impacts of this shift are poorly known. Foraging is increasingly popular for personal consumption and commercially, not least in the Nordic countries where popularity is fuelled by the New Nordic Food movement. Here, we evaluate if this trend entails biodiversity conservation risks in Norway. In collaboration with the Norwegian Association for Mycology and Foraging, we conducted 18 face-to-face interviews with key stakeholders and we published an online questionnaire filled by 219 recreational and professional foragers. We enquired on what species are harvested, by whom and how, where do foragers learn and what are their perspectives on the sustainability of foraging. We combined these data with an assessment of foraging impact based on foraging pressure, ecological traits and conservation assessments. Our results show that 272 different wild edible plants are foraged and that this is mostly sustainable. However, some risks arise from the harvest of threatened plants, the potential spread of invasive species, and the overharvesting of extremely popular or fashionable species. Foraging fosters a strong connection with the natural environment and the majority of foragers report to forage as part of a sustainable lifestyle. We suggest that careful encouragement to forage and the participatory development of local guidelines for sustainable foraging in Norway can enhance people-nature relationships while safeguarding foraged plant populations.