Massive genome decay and expansion of insertion sequences drive the evolution of a novel host-restricted bacterial pathogen

BackgroundThe emergence of new pathogens is a major threat to public and veterinary health. Changes in bacterial habitat such as those associated with a switch in host or disease tropism are often accompanied by genetic adaptation. Staphylococcus aureus is a multi-host bacterial species comprising strains with distinct tropisms for human and livestock species. A microaerophilic subspecies, Staphylococcus aureus subsp. anaerobius, is responsible for outbreaks of Morels disease, a lymphadenitis in small ruminants. However, the evolutionary history of S. aureus subsp. anaerobius and its relatedness to S. aureus are unknown. ResultsEvolutionary genomic analyses of clinical S. aureus subsp. anaerobius isolates revealed a highly conserved clone that descended from a S. aureus progenitor about 1000 years ago before differentiating into distinct lineages representing African and European isolates. S. aureus subsp. anaerobius has undergone limited clonal expansion, with a restricted population size, and an evolutionary rate 10-fold slower than S. aureus. The transition to its current restricted ecological niche involved acquisition of a pathogenicity island encoding a ruminant host-specific effector of abscess formation, several large chromosomal re-arrangements, and the accumulation of at least 205 pseudogenes resulting in a highly fastidious metabolism. Importantly, expansion of [~]87 insertion sequences (IS) located largely in intergenic regions provided distinct mechanisms for the control of expression of flanking genes, representing a novel concept of the IS regulon. ConclusionsOur findings reveal the remarkable evolutionary trajectory of a host-restricted bacterial pathogen that resulted from extensive remodelling of the S. aureus genome through an array of parallel mechanisms.