Microbiome Determinants and Physiological Effects of the Benzoate-Hippurate Microbial-Host Co-Metabolic Pathway

ObjectiveGut microbial products are involved in type 2 diabetes, obesity and insulin resistance. In particular, hippurate, a hepatic phase 2 conjugation product of microbial benzoate metabolism, has been associated with a healthy phenotype. This study aims to identify metagenomic determinants and test protective effects of hippurate. DesignWe profiled the urine metabolome by 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to derive associations with metagenomic sequences in 271 middle-aged Danish individuals to identify dietary patterns in which urine hippurate levels were associated with health benefits. We follow up with benzoate and hippurate infusion in mice to demonstrate causality on clinical phenotypes. ResultsIn-depth analysis identifies that the urine hippurate concentration is associated with microbial gene richness, microbial functional redundancy as well as functional modules for microbial benzoate biosynthetic pathways across several enterotypes. Through dietary stratification, we identify a subset of study participants consuming a diet rich in saturated fat in which urine hippurate, independently of gene richness, accounts for links with metabolic health that we previously associated with gene richness. We then demonstrate causality in vivo through chronic subcutaneous infusions of hippurate or benzoate (20 nmol/day) resulting in improved glycemic control in mice fed a high-fat diet. Hippurate improved insulin secretion through increased {beta}-cell mass and reduced liver inflammation and fibrosis, whereas benzoate treatment resulted in liver inflammation. ConclusionOur translational study shows that the benzoate-hippurate pathway brings a range of metabolic improvements in the context of high-fat diets, highlighting the potential of hippurate as a mediator of metabolic health.