A Machine Learning Based Causal Interface for Time-Varying Environmental Predictors of Substance Use Initiation in the ABCD Study

BackgroundThe Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study(R) offers rich longitudinal data on environmental, genetic, and other factors related to substance use initiation. Classical marginal structural models (MSMs) require selecting covariates for propensity models, which is challenging in the presence of hundreds of correlated predictors. MethodsWe analyzed longitudinal panel data from 11,868 ABCD participants, where each individual contributed repeated observations over time. Interval-level binary outcomes were defined for initiation of alcohol, nicotine, cannabis, and any substance, restricting analyses to participants at risk prior to initiation. All predictors were constructed as lagged variables to preserve temporal ordering. We implemented a two-stage machine learning-based causal framework. First, we performed graph discovery using a Granger-inspired lagged predictive modeling approach, applying elastic-net logistic regression to identify predictive relationships between lagged environmental variables and future initiation outcomes. Robust candidate edges were selected using subject-level bootstrap stability selection. Second, we estimated adjusted effect sizes for stable edges using double machine learning (DML)-style partialling-out with cross-fitting. For each candidate predictor, the treatment was defined as the lagged variable of interest and adjusted for high-dimensional lagged covariates. Cross-fitting with group-based splitting accounted for within-subject dependence, and nuisance functions were estimated using random forest models. Cluster-robust standard errors were used for inference. ResultsWe identified a set of stable predictors across multiple domains, including sleep patterns, family environment, peer relationships, behavioral traits, and genetic risk. Many predictors were shared across substance outcomes, while some were outcome-specific. Estimated effect sizes were modest, typically ranging from -0.01 to 0.02 per standard deviation increase in the predictor. Both risk-increasing and protective associations were observed. Risk factors included sleep disturbance and behavioral risk indicators, while protective factors included parental monitoring and structured environments. ConclusionsThis study provides a practical framework for analyzing high-dimensional longitudinal data and identifying time-varying predictors of substance use initiation. The approach combines machine learning for variable selection with causal inference methods for effect estimation. The results highlight both shared and substance-specific risk factors and identify modifiable targets, such as family environment and sleep, that may inform prevention strategies.