Surface-by-temperature interactions shape the relationship between viral free-living survival and reproduction

Environmental factors play a critical role in viral persistence, yet the combined effects of temperature and surface chemistry on viral fitness are not fully understood. We examined bacteriophages T4 and{varphi} X174 across copper, stainless steel, and polypropylene plastic surfaces at 4{degrees}C and 37{degrees}C to assess how these variables influence survival and reproduction. Both phages exhibited marked differences in survival across surfaces: copper at 37{degrees}C caused rapid inactivation, and cooler conditions promoted persistence. Reproductive capacity varied independently of survival, indicating that viral stability and replication are partially decoupled traits shaped by environmental context. Linear modeling and correlation analyses confirmed significant, non-additive interactions between surface type and temperature. These findings suggest that abiotic factors can act synergistically to determine viral fitness outside the host. More broadly, they refine our understanding of the mechanisms that govern the environmental ecology of viruses and the canonical relationship between survival and transmission.