Seasonal and diel environment effects on host-seeking behaviour in the European tick vector, Ixodes ricinus

BackgroundPatterns of arthropod vector abundance and activity are key deter-minants of biting risk, and thus the risk of vector-borne pathogen transmission. Ticks are important vectors of animal and human pathogens worldwide. Their host-seeking activity (questing) directly influences the risk of exposure to ticks and their pathogens, but the drivers of this behaviour are poorly understood. MethodsThe concurrent seasonal and diel variation in Ixodes ricinus questing behaviour was investigated, for the first time, by blanket dragging every four hours over a 24-hour sampling cycle each month, from January to December 2022. Associations between tick density and environmental factors were evaluated by Generalised Linear Mixed Modelling. ResultsA predominantly nocturnal questing activity pattern was observed, moderated by seasonal moisture availability, being most evident in months with high saturation deficit. The density of questing nymphs was positively associated with darkness, and negatively associated with saturation deficit, which interacted with soil temperature. ConclusionsThe observed seasonal questing patterns are largely consistent with published data; however this is the first study to highlight the impor-tance of nocturnal feeding at periods of high saturation deficit. These commonly overlooked daily rhythms and environmental moderators of tick behaviour have important implications for assessing the relative risk of exposure to ticks and their pathogens for different hosts, and for estimating abundance in scientific research and surveillance.