Over four months of ethylene production: Unlocking the potential of solid-state photosynthetic cell factories

This study demonstrates the feasibility of employing solid-state photosynthetic cell factories (solid-state PCFs) as a proof-of-concept platform for long-term ethylene production using sodium bicarbonate as the carbon source. Solid-state PCFs were constructed by entrapping Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 (efe mutant, strain S5), specifically engineered for ethylene biosynthesis, within TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofiber (TCNF) matrices. Two distinct formulations were tested: (i) Ca2+-PVA-TCNF, in which TCNF was crosslinked with Ca2+ and polyvinyl alcohol to produce hydrogel films approximately 200 m thick; and (ii) an all-polysaccharide-based Ca2+-MLG-TCNF formulation, in which TCNF was crosslinked with Ca2+ and mixed-linkage glucan. The latter films were fabricated using an osmotic dehydration approach, yielding mechanically robust, fully biodegradable structures with a thickness of approximately 2 mm. The integration of engineered cells with TCNF matrices created a biocatalytic system that improved the distribution of light, nutrients, and substrates to the cells, while facilitating ethylene separation, thereby supporting the fitness of immobilized cells and enhancing their metabolic performance. Using a custom-designed photobiofilm reactor optimized for semi-wet cultivation, the solid-state PCFs sustained ethylene production for over four months, representing the longest reported continuous ethylene production by cyanobacteria to date. Notably, the solid-state PCFs achieved up to a twofold increase in ethylene yield compared to the continuous-flow suspension culture. Importantly, the suspension-based system also represented the first demonstration of four-month ethylene production under continuous-flow operation. In addition, biodegradability assessments confirmed the environmental compatibility of the TCNF-based matrices, with the all-polysaccharide formulation being particularly advantageous due to its exclusively nature-based composition. Together, these results demonstrate the potential of solid-state PCFs as a scalable and sustainable platform for photosynthetic ethylene production.